Non Biodegradable

Non-biodegradable waste made up approximately 33% of the metropolitan strong waste delivered in the U. S. in 2009 (see References 1, page 6). The U. S. Natural Protection Agency suggests reusing at whatever point conceivable, and discarding your junk at an ignition office or in a landfill just when reusing is beyond the realm of imagination (see References 1, page 11). Perilous waste ought to be taken care of independently by your nearby sanitation office or by privately owned businesses that represent considerable authority in safe removal of poisons (see References 2).Recycling Separate glass, plastic and metal from other non-biodegradable waste for reusing. Numerous urban and rural zones have curbside reusing programs; if such a program isn't accessible, take recyclable materials to the closest assortment office for handling. Reusing spares space in landfills and diminishes the measure of virgin materials that must be mined or fabricated to make new items, sparing vitality and les sening worldwide environmental change all the while. (See References 3) CombustionSome non-biodegradable waste like utilized elastic tires and plastic can be singed at burning offices. The greater part of these offices utilize the warmth produced by cremation to make vitality as steam or power, which diminishes their interest for other nonrenewable assets, including coal and oil. In 2009, ignition offices consumed 3. 1 million tons of strong waste, for the most part utilized tires. Burning of metropolitan waste likewise diminishes the volume of junk that winds up in landfills. (See References 1, page 166) LandfillsLandfills give long haul stockpiling to non-biodegradable waste. In a perfect world, landfills are painstakingly arranged to keep pollution from entering encompassing soil and water, and figured out how to diminish smell and nuisances however much as could reasonably be expected. (See References 4) Federal guidelines require cautious checking in and around the site. Perilo us Waste Disposal Some items like engine oil, pesticides, batteries and paint are conceivably risky to sanitation laborers and everyone as a whole.They are likewise more hazardous to the earth than idle materials like plastic or elastic. Numerous people group offer unique assortment and removal projects to manage family perilous waste as securely as could be expected under the circumstances. In zones with no such projects, it's lawful to discard family perilous waste in the refuse. Adhere to any unique removal directions recorded on the first holder. Before doing as such, be that as it may, contact the producer or retailer of the material you have to discard to approach on the off chance that they acknowledge old materials for reuse or reusing.

Organizational Ethics Issue Resolution Paper Essay

This paper means to depict a moral issue and apply it to six moral dynamic advances specifically issue explanation, partner investigation, values recognizable proof, issue goals, tending to protests and goals execution. Primary Body The moral issue that will be talked about is giving out inadmissible degrees of air and water contamination during the creation procedure by an organization’s industrial facilities. So as to adequately resolve the issue, the association needs to change its creation forms so its social expense isn't excessively high and simultaneously the association will benefit from it. Issue Clarification The initial phase in goals of authoritative morals issue is to appropriately characterizing the issue in detail and examining it with all the related individuals from the association. The definition must be clear, explicit and dependent on the best accessible data. At that point all the individuals who are getting influenced by this issue must be distinguished. When this is done, the outcomes of this issue must be talked about in detail. Another significant issue that must be managed is data needs. This will enable the association to comprehend the idea of the current issue. Ultimately, the significance of comprehending this issue must be assessed so it tends to be given a need. (Michigan State University Extension, 1994) For our situation, the current issue is contamination. The company’s processing plants give out a great deal of smoke in the environment and furthermore the streams and waterways around the production lines are being tainted by the dumping of substance squander in them. As a result of the rising issue of a dangerous atmospheric devation, air contamination is an issue of incredible concern. The water from the waterways and channels around the industrial facility isn't usable any more. The dumping of synthetic waste in the stream waters has brought about no perfect water for the lodging social orders in the region. In the wake of seeing this, a great deal of Non Government Organizations have proposed measures that will diminish the contamination that is given out. What's more, the administration is additionally anticipating impressive laws that will restrain the measure of contamination that is given out. Associations that give out contamination over the worthy level will be vigorously burdened. Those included and who are influenced incorporate the individuals of the area, earthy person, government and the general public overall. Partner Analysis Stakeholder Analysis is a procedure wherein the Stakeholders are characterized and their significance in the entire dynamic procedure is assessed. Partners are each one of those gatherings that will influence and get influenced by an organization’s choices. Models incorporate government, network, representatives, investors and so forth. So as to determine authoritative morals issue viably, it is significant for an association to win support from these gatherings. There are four stages to how this method must be done. As a matter of first importance, your partners must be distinguished. Furthermore, you will organize them and next the association will endeavor to comprehend their most significant partners (MindTools, 2008). In conclusion, all the help that we can get from these partners will be surveyed and approaches to diminish restriction from some of them will likewise be thought of. The partners engaged with our case will be people in general, senior administrators, press, government and non-government associations, clients, forthcoming clients, and ultimately worker's guilds. This rundown is organized, the first being the most significant. They are organized by the measure of intrigue and force they have on the association. The partners with elevated levels of intensity and intrigue must be overseen intently and be kept fulfilled. Every one of these gatherings are influenced by the organization’s choices and they additionally have impact over these. The association will likewise get support from every one of these partners. Open will be steady since decline in contamination will legitimately profit them. Senior official will likewise strong on the grounds that through press, the company’s brand picture will improve and along these lines, the clients and potential clients will go for the company’s items. Ultimately, we will attempt to comprehend these partners and how they feel about the choice and the moral issue. This should be possible with the assistance of meetings and different methods for correspondence. This understanding will help in more precisely organizing the partners. Qualities recognizable proof The third step in the dynamic procedure would be distinguishing proof of the hierarchical qualities. Each association has its own qualities. These qualities set guidelines as indicated by which each person in the association must act. In the event that these norms are not set, everybody will carry on as indicated by their individual qualities which will upset the workplace’s condition. Subsequently, it is fundamental to distinguish and comprehend the significance of these qualities. These qualities could incorporate trustworthiness, demonstrable skill, cooperation, and so forth. These qualities separate between the privilege from wrong, consequently just once we have recognized these qualities, we will have the option to determine authoritative morals issues. (National Defense University, 2006) These qualities will assist us with choosing whether the issue deceptive or not and if the activities of the association are against the organization’s virtues. In our speculative circumstance, the association will meet up so as to recognize its authoritative qualities. The potential qualities that could be recognized would be obligation, responsibility, and polished skill. The association must understand its duty towards the general public, be responsible for its activities and in conclusion be proficient in the manner in which they handle the current issue. Spreading of contamination by the associations processing plants is exploitative on the grounds that it is against its moral qualities. Issue goals This incorporates gathering everything examined in the initial three stages to think of a goals which will settle the issue. It will incorporate an itemized arrangement which will cover all the parts of the moral issue. This is the most significant advance in the entire dynamic procedure since this progression traces the total key arrangement of the association. In the wake of thinking about the issue, partners and the virtues of the organization, the following stage is concocting a goals. The association should initially change its creation procedure so the contamination it is giving out can be restricted. This will require a great deal of capital. The Organization at this stage must choose how this capital will raised. Additionally, another method of the disposing of synthetic waste that is dumped in waterways must be utilized. Next, the association ought to guarantee that greener items are created and reused material ought to be utilized for bundling. It ought to include the press, with the goal that the network will think about this activity of the association. Tending to protests The following stage in dynamic is one of the most hard to deal with as it includes getting others. This progression incorporates proficiently, effectively, expertly and capability tending to issues with the choice or the goals the association has thought of. There are different gatherings that may question this choice. It is the objective of the leaders to deliberately tune in and comprehend these complaints and afterward tending to them suitably. This progression isn't over until the ones questioning are happy with the support given to them. For our situation, one significant gathering that may protest this choice would be the senior officials or the financial specialists who should accommodate this new task. They may question on the grounds that the capital required for this new task would be high and they would need to be fulfilled before they contribute. These gatherings should be guaranteed that this venture may cost a great deal to the organization, yet in the long haul, it won't just advantage the general public yet will likewise profit the association itself. Diminishing contamination will improve the brand picture of the organization which may build its piece of the overall industry. In addition, in future, when the administration will force laws and assessments on giving out of contamination, the association will profit as they will have the option to stay away from it. They should be given trust in their venture. Goals usage After all the five stages, one significant advance is goals execution. The choice must be executed with the end goal for it to be compelling. The association authorities can do as such by masterminding a gathering that will include everybody working for the association. Particularly, the individuals who are new to the association must go to these. In this gathering, the goals must be talked about with everybody in the association. They should be told the drill and how the association anticipates handling the circumstance. At this stage, proposals from everybody from the associations would be invited as these might assist the association with coming up with a superior choice. Alongside this, its significance must be accentuated. It must be clarified that it is essential to follow these rules consistently, in any case genuine estimates will be taken against the individuals who breech it. At last, laborers must be observed and managed to know whether the moral norms are being met. At similar occasions, the viability of the measures presented should likewise be checked. The laborers could be given criticism on how they are getting along staying aware of it, positive or negative. They should be valued and a prize framework must be created on the off chance that they figure out how to tail them. This will inspire them to adhere to the guidelines without management in future. A morals execution assessment ought to be created. This will take a gander at how the association has acted. This would empower the association to look at whether its activities and choices are predictable with its motivation and virtues. (Miriam Schulman, 2008) Also preparing must be giving in the event that it is requir

Minor Changes - UGA Undergraduate Admissions

Minor Changes - UGA Undergraduate Admissions Minor Changes After about a year and a half of managing the UGA Admissions blog, I think it is about time to make a few modifications to the site. I will be making changes slowly over the next few months, with some being functional and some being cosmetic in nature. A few days ago, I added the Subscribe Via Email link in the right hand column so that you can receive an email every time I add a post. In addition, there have been some requests to try to organize the comments a little better. While I do not control all aspects of the functional part of the blog (thanks Blogger!), I an able to add some new features as they become available to the blogging world. One such feature is a different style of comments that will order the responses better. In addition, while the look of the site is not bad, it could definitely use a little more excitement and color. Dont fear, I will not be making any radical changes, just some needed additions. Please let me know if you have any suggestions for the blog as far as features, and I will see what can be done. Go Dawgs!

Genetic Interaction Between Lsd1 And Hyperphosphorylated Tau

Approved By: In accordance with IACUC Protocol # Rohitha Moudgal NBB 495A Fall 2015 Honors Proposal Investigating a Genetic Interaction Between LSD1 and Hyperphosphorylated Tau in a P301S Mouse Model Background Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia and is characterized by the degeneration and death of brain cells that causes a loss of mental function. Although neuronal loss is not considered a normal part of aging, age is a significant risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) (Lindsay et al., 2002). Hallmarks of AD include tau tangles and Amyloid-ÃŽ ² plaques, whose interaction is thought to lead to neuronal death (Ittner GÃ ¶tz, 2011). At present, there is no singular cause identified for AD, and further study is required before a cure can be developed. One proposed link to AD is a mutation in Microtubule Associated Protein Tau (MAPT), coded by the MAPT gene located on chromosome 17 (Lee, Goedert, Trojanowski, 2001). Tau protein is normally soluble and functions to stabilize microtubules within axons. However, mutations in MAPT can cause Neurofibrillary Tangles (NFTs) comprised of hyper-phosphorylated tau protein to collect within neurons and spread throu ghout the brain (Clavaguera et al., 2009). These tau tangles are detergent-insoluble and impair axonal transport to an extent (Zhang et al., 2012). Transgenic mice expressing mutant human P301S tau protein exhibit synaptic dysfunction followed by hippocampal and cortical neuronal loss (Yoshiyama et al.,

How Much Air Force One Cost

Air Force One, the aircraft that transports the president of the United States, cost  about $2 billion to build and more than $200,000 to fly, according to federal spending records and published reports. Taxpayers pay for some or all of the Air Force One cost regardless of whether the presidents airplane is used for official trips or unofficial, political purposes. The two newest Air Force One airplanes, both models  747-8, are being outfitted by Boeing at a combined cost of about $3.9 billion and were to take flight in 2021. The White House determines whether use of Air Force One is for official or political purposes. Many times the Boeing 747 is used for a combination of events. Specific Air Force One Costs The $200,000-plus hourly Air Force One cost covers everything from fuel, maintenance, engineering support, food and lodging for the pilots and crew and other operational costs that include the use of special communications equipment. In addition to the hourly cost of Air Force One, taxpayers cover salaries for Secret Service staff and other assistants who travel with the president. Occasionally, when there are more than 75 people traveling with the president, the federal government will use a second passenger airplane to accommodate them. What is an Official Trip? Perhaps the most common example of official Air Force One use by the president is traveling across the United States to explain and win support for his administrations policies. Another is traveling overseas on official state business to meet with foreign leaders, such as President Barack Obamas 2010 trip on Air Force One to India. When a president travels on official business, taxpayers cover all Air Force One costs including food, lodging and car rentals, according to the Congressional Research Service. During official trips taxpayers also cover the cost of travel for the presidents immediate family and staff. What is a Political Trip? The most common example of a political trip on Air Force One is when the president travels to a destination in his role not as commander-in-chief but as de facto leader of his political party. Such travel would be to attend fundraisers, campaign rallies or party events. On the campaign trail, Obama and other presidential nominees have also gotten to use armored buses that cost more than $1 million each. When Air Force One is used for political purposes, the president often reimburses the government for the cost of food, lodging and travel. The president or his election campaign pays back an amount that is equivalent of the airfare that they would have paid had they used a commercial airline, according to the Congressional Research Service. According to The Associated Press, though, the president or his campaign does not pay for the entire Air Force One operation cost. They pays an amount that is based on the number of people board the airplane. Taxpayers still pick up the cost of Secret Service agents and the operation of Air Force One. Political and Officials Trips The a president and his family and staff travel on Air Force One for a combination of political and officials purposes, they typically reimburse taxpayers for the part of the trip that is considered campaigning. For example, if half of the presidents trip is spent raising money for his or another officials election, he or his campaign will reimburse taxpayers for half the cost of his travel, food and lodging. There are gray areas, of course. When they travel and appear in public to defend their policy positions, the difference between their official duties and their activities as leaders of their political party can be difficult to assess, the Congressional Research Service state. As a result, the White House decides the nature of travel on a case-by-case basis, attempting to determine whether each trip, or part of a trip, is or is not official by considering the nature of the event involved, and the role of the individual involved.

GCSE Geographical Investigation Free Essays

Managing Resources There is a need to manage, preserve and enhance the environment (built and natural) to maintain the tourist trade. This can be achieved in a variety of ways. The Growth in tourism There has been a steady but dramatic increase in tourism since the 1920/1930’s. We will write a custom essay sample on GCSE Geographical Investigation or any similar topic only for you Order Now This was due to the increase and availability of cars for the average family. As families began to develop more and more disposable income in which they could use to buy cars etc. With this came family individuality, this meant that family’s who wanted to go out into the countryside didn’t have to wait for a long and uncomfortable bus journey to get into places of natural beauty. The questions that I will be answering in my essay are as follows: 1) Is there a need for conservation and stewardship in the Upper Derwent Valley? 2) Is the area managed in order to conserve the environment in the Upper Derwent Valley? 3) Does the Upper Derwnet Valley have some or all the features of a honeypot location? How will answering these questions help me to investigate my title? By answering these questions I will gather evidence and information about the Upper Derwent Valley, I will then be able to decide whether there is a need for management or stewardship in certain areas of the Upper Derwent Valley. Background Information Over 100 years ago the Derwent Valley in North Derbyshire was identified as having all the necessary attributes for water storage to satisfy the growing needs of the local population and industry in North Derbyshire, Sheffield, Nottingham, Derby and Leicester, the valley being deep and long, surrounded by grit stone edges with narrow points for dam building, and having a high rainfall. This valley close to Sheffield is now extremely popular with visitors who come to enjoy the attractive mix of water and woodland within the surrounding moorland. The road winds up the left flank of Lady bower, Derwent and Howden Reservoirs for nearly 8 miles to a turnaround at King’s Tree. Here are some interesting facts about the famous reservoirs in the Upper Derwent valley: Catchment area 19,850 hectares Reservoir capacity 463692 million litres (3 reservoirs) Treatment works Yorkshire Bridge, opened 1929 Water filtered, chlorine added and pH corrected Bamford Stage I opened 1948 Bamford Stage II opened 1967 Where the water goes: (millions of liters) 450 (untreated) Sheffield 172 (treated) 77 Derbyshire 68 Leicester 27 Nottingham The Dambusters Derwent reservoir was used by the RAF’s Dambusters to practise their low level flying techniques during 1943, in preparation for delivering Barnes Wallis’ famous ‘bouncing bombs’ to German dams. Located in the West Tower of the Derwent Valley Dam is the Derwent Dam (617 Squadron) Museum which houses a collection of memorabilia dedicated to the famous Dams Raid carried out by 617 Dambusters Squadron. It includes photographs and other material covering all aspects of the Dams Raid How to cite GCSE Geographical Investigation, Papers

Ordeal by Cheque The life of Jr Essay Example For Students

Ordeal by Cheque: The life of Jr Essay John McElyeaAugust 24, 2003TLCCheckbook Final DraftOrdeal by Cheque: The life of JrTony turned the corner at a dangerous speed, trying to go even faster, but the sirens behind him did not get any softer. This was all the kids fault. That stupid kid. Tony sped up, dodging traffic as he had so many times before, except this time it was different. The kid. Tony thought back, remembering everything he could, all the way to the very beginning. Lawrence Exeter Junior had been born in the heat of the day on September 2, 1903. He was different from the day he was born. His rich parents sensed something was wrong, for parents usually can sense things about their child. Therefore, the day after he was born, Marie and Lawrence Exeter took the newborn to Dr. David McCoy for a check-up. The doctor said that the baby was as healthy as a horse, and there was nothing to worry about. Still, the parents worried, because parents can tell. Jr, as everyone called him, was very quiet as a baby and never had big reactions to things. Everyone said he was just quiet. His parent brought him gifts from California Toyland, but they soon figured out that he was happy with just staring at something or handling a small object. When he reached 6, his father enrolled him in Palisades School for boys. Jr excelled in all of his classes except art and handwriting. Jrs 3rd report card showed that he had improved his handwriting, so Lawrence Sr brought Jr a bicycle. Jr was immediately fascinated with it. Within a week, Jr had mastered training wheels, and exactly sixteen days after he had mastered training wheels, Jr was riding it without the training wheels. Jr rode his bicycle everywhere. He even started waking up earlier in the morning so he and his dad could bike down to Palisades, which was nine miles away. His bicycle became his treasure. All of his artwork in art class now somehow revolved around a bicycle. On July 24, 1915, the real trouble with Jr started that would ruin many lives, including Tony Spagonis. Jr was out riding his bicycle, when a man by the name of Steve Matterson came around a corner too fast, tried to slam on brakes, but ended up hitting both Jr and his bike. Because Steve had put on his brakes, Jr only suffered scrapes and bruises. His bike however, was a mess. Jr cried for hours that day, his parents comforting him and telling him they would buy him a new one the next day. They never did. They never pressed charges out of courtesy, for they knew it was an accident that anyone would have made. That night, before Jrs parents put him to bed, he said to them:Im sorryWhat are you sorry for, honey? his mom asked. Youll know, he said, rolling over and pretending to go to sleep. Later, when Jr was sure his parents were asleep, he got up, and wrote a simple letter that read:im sorry He put the letter in an envelope, sealed it, and somehow correctly addressed it to Steve Matterson. Three days later, right before Mrs. Exeter was about to take her son to the toyshop to buy a new bike, she picked up the paper and a certain article caught her eye. It said: Man MurderedSteve Matterson was found chokedto death in his house. Officials say Later in the story it mentioned that a letter was found in his house that said im sorry. This was enough for Marie. She knew how to put two and two together. What did you do to Steve, she asked Jr. Im sorry, he said casually. Well, you cant get a new bike until I know what happened. He glared at her for a moment, then said, I made him sorry, too.Of course, you can guess that didnt go over well. The Exeter family never discussed it outside the immediate family. There was much discussion between Mr. and Mrs. Exeter, though. They decided to straighten him out. They knew that he was directly linked to Mattersons death, but they didnt have a clue as to what had happened. So, on August 31, Jr, now 12 years old, stepped on to the campus of Columbia Military Academy. He was a good student, made good grades, fit in, and his only behavioral problem was his reluctance to talk to his teachers and drill sergeants. When he graduated, his father brought him a brand new Cadillac. It was a beautiful car. It ran as sooth as any, and it was from the nicest dealer in town. Not four days after Jr had received his new car, he ran a red light and smashed into the side of a Ford, crushing the hood of the Cadillac. You Freak! he yelled at the person. YOULL BE SO SORRY YOU EVER THOUGHT YOU COULD MESS UP MY HOOD!The other person came out of the ford, and gave Jr a dark look. You stupid kid, he said dangerously, You are an idiot for thinking that you will ever do anything to me. You caused the accident. Goodbye. The man got back in his car and without another word drove off, leaving Jr standing in the street, furious. Jrs dad sympathized with Jrs tale of a man who had cut across traffic, so the father got the car fixed. Jr wrote a letter that would bring an end to the dark man in the Ford and filled out the envelope. On the way to the mailbox, he had looked down and saw that he had written a letter to a man named Tony Spagoni. Later that year, after many letters to Tony Spagoni (Jr searched the whole paper every day, but couldnt find Tonys name anywhere.), Jrs father had enrolled Jr into Stanford University. After two semesters, Jr was doing real well with his studies, so his father decided to let him have the French vacation that Jr had always wanted. When Jr went to see his parents over the summer, he was surprised by the round trip ticket to France his father gave him. He told them while he was there that a lifeguard named Miss Daisy Windson had saved his life. He told his parents to send her a check for twenty five thousand dollars. They did, and two weeks later, Tony was in France. While he was enjoying France, he met a woman, Miss Ellie Stinson, who was also from the US and touring France. She was from Nevada, he found out. They spent a month together in France. When they got back to the United States, they moved into an apartment together in California. He continued to go out with her, buying her hu ge arrangements of flowers every now and then. Then, Jrs dad brought a huge house and had it furnished and decorated with the most expensive furniture. Before the house was finished, Jr went to Beverly Diamond Gift Shoppe and got a ring that sparkled so much you could see it across the room. He asked Ellie to marry him, she said yes, and the next day Jr got his dad to buy them two tickets for a Hawaii cruise ship. The got married privately on the ship, no one else in the room except Lawrence Exeter Jr, Ellie Exeter, and the minister. When they got back from the cruise, Jrs father gave Jr two hundred thousand dollars as a wedding gift. The couple took their honeymoon in Turkey. They stayed at the Ambassador Hotel in Istanbul. They were there for two weeks, and had the time of their lives. When they got back, their house was finished, so they moved in. Their marriage stayed strong, and Jr still gave her flowers and sweets. Mr Exeter Sr gave Jr his checkbook, because he thought that it was time for Jr to have it. Everything was going great until Jr received the letter in the mail. The letter had no return address, and all it said was: If you wish to live, go to the Parisian Gown Shoppe. Jr did not share this note with his wife, because he thought it might upset her. The next day, he went to the small, shabby shop. He stepped inside and was greeted by a group of men wearing black suits. One of them with dark features Jr recognized as Tony Spagoni. You should be dead, Jr said, pointing at Tony. Atomic Bomb EssayInstead of this apartment, why dont you come stay at my house? he said. Jr agreed instantly. He had grown fond of Tony, and he especially liked writing notes now. Tony only asked for $100 dollars, and Jr, of course, gave it to him. Jr liked Tonys apartment, and that night Jr asked Tony why Tony hadnt died. Tony told him that other people had opened the note, and the note wasnt meant for them, so they hadnt died. Tony had always kept the first note, folded, so he couldnt read it. That was how they discovered he had the ability. The next morning, Tony wanted $100, so Tony got $100. Then, Tony left. While he was gone, Jr got the mail, and saw it was time to write another letter. Jr opened a desk drawer in search of a pen, and found a note from Tony to The Bootery. From the letter, Jr realized that The Bootery was just a family in the mob. This family always had money when they needed it, and whenever there was a threat to the family, all the people involved either die d or got seriously injured. A detective named Peter Ventizzi had just been assigned to bring down The Bootery, and Tony was asking the godfather of The Bootery if he could use Jr to kill Ventizzi. Jr wrote a note to Ventizzi, that had a check for $25, told Peter where he was, gave him Tonys name, and told him not to open any letters. Jr filled out the address (somehow knowing where Ventizzi lived), and mailed it. Then he went back into the house, dialed 911, said that he was at a murderers house, and then sat back. Tony arrived before the police. He saw the note in Jrs hand, immediately understood, pulled out his gun, and fired, then turned and ran to his car as the faint sound of sirens filled the air. Luckily, an ambulance had also been dispatched. Jr spent the next ten days in the hospital, then he had died of internal bleeding. Dr. McCoy, the same guy that delivered him, had treated him. Tony, as he turned another corner at break-neck speed, could remember the last two weeks that he had spent hiding, but he had been found by Ventizzi in the end. He knew that if they captured him, they would be able to get names out of him. He opened his glove compartment, pulled out a note, unfolded it, and read the two words written on it.

Sports And Aggressive Behavior Essays - Dispute Resolution, Emotions

Sports and Aggressive Behavior Sport and aggressive behavior, Do sports create aggressive behavior, or simply attract people who are already aggressive? Aggression and sport have gone together as long as sports have been around, be it the players themselves, to the parents, coaches, or spectators, they just seem to be an inseparable part of each other. The term violence is defined as physical assault based on total disregard for the well being of self and others, or the intent to injure another person ( 2. Coakley). Intimidation usually does not cause physical harm, but often is designed to produce psychological consequences, enabling one person to physically over power or dominate another. These statements as defined by the author, Jay J. Coakley, is what people today have made a must part on sport. Pleasure and participation sports absolutely cannot be grouped with power and performance sports when in relation to aggression.Pleasure sports are simply played for pleasure. Score is usually not kept. The athletes participating are usually on occasion doing it for fun and exercise. A majority of athletes who have been playing sports since they were little, have probably been pounded into their heads that to be successful in sport, you need to be aggressive, and at some times, unnecessary. Also that to get what you want, you have to go at it with all force. Not that this is wrong but, this attitude in today's society has been a major problem factor to the athletes when they get older, to get into trouble with the law. Those long-term effects of so called discipline, patterns develops these destructive behaviors. (9. Montague) Although some people are still in belief that aggressive behaviors in all forms, are grounded into instincts, but they also relate these actions to sports. Their parents played, who were known for their aggressive behavior, so the child feels that they have to live up to that expectation.( 6. Storr) Athletes do have to be aggressive to a point, so that the team can form a strategy to win. There is also a limit to aggression when it turns into violence. People might say that it's not aggression or violence, it's just adrenaline pumping. Adrenaline isn't even similar to violence. Aggression, maybe, but nothing that would be harmful to anyone else. This might be a factor to why contact sports are so popular. For example, football, hockey, rugby, wrestling, and boxing. Contrary to predictions of instinct theory, several studies show that contact sports exist and thrive in the same societies that have high rates of aggression and violence. Unfortunately, another belief is that contact sports teach discipline, self-respect, and self-defense. (8. May ) Contact sports aren't a positive way to teach these things. Being physically tough helps, but it also needs to be left on the field when the game is over. This can also lead to the abuse of family, girlfriends, boyfriends, friends, and any other person who gets in their "way", because athletes use these sports as a way to get their aggression and angers out. ( 10. Hauser, Powers, Noam ) Other's might argue that it's skill, and not in the least way violent. Although we really can't give a straight and to the point answer to the question "Is aggression an Instinct?" We can say that in man, as in other animals, there exists a physiological mechanism, when stimulated, it rises both subjective feelings of anger and to physical changes, which relate to fighting. This is easily set off, and like other emotional responses, it is very stereotyped, and instinctive. Just like one person is like a very angry person; they resemble one another at the psychological level. The way in which humans adapt to and control their feelings of rage. ( 5. Toch) The mechanisms in which these body changes, the functions that come about is still completely misunderstood. ( 5. Toch) Experiments from animal's show that it appears that there is a small area from the base of the brain in which the feeling of anger starts. This, from which is sent to the nervous impulses that cause the blood pressure to rise. This area is called the hypothalamus. Its function is to coordinate responses

Negative Impacts of Smoking on Individuals and Society

Negative Impacts of Smoking on Individuals and Society Introduction Each cigarette smoked, shortens life by 11 minutes. It can affect the strength of bones and the color of teeth. Stamina gets reduced, owing to decreased blood circulation. Smoking is the root cause of different kinds of cancers, the most common being lung throat cancer.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Negative Impacts of Smoking on Individuals and Society specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It also decreases our body immunity i.e. the power of body to resist illness. It also reduces fertility in men as well as women. It deprives the skin of oxygen and as a result, the skin loses its texture. Hence, a smoker will appear to be 5 years older than his/her non-smoking counterparts. Tobacco consumption is an addiction similar to the addictions of alcohol, drugs or even sex for that matter. An addict of such habits cannot come out that easily. While efforts should be made to discourage such an addiction, such mea sures should be taken that keep the new generation spaced out. Then, we know that the problem is not incessant and the focus of the approach can be centralized. This would make the job a lot easier. The main culprits of spreading this addiction are the tobacco products manufacturing companies. They should maintain some code of conduct. But their profits are based on the sufferings of others. I am saying this because an addict doesn’t buy the product out of choice, but out of compulsion and addiction. The companies are to blame for promoting the tobacco products in a deceptive manner. If at all any tobacco manufacturing company wants to promote its products, it should be based on facts. The hazardous side effects of smoking should be highlighted in their advertisement campaigns. A simple mention of â€Å"Smoking kills† or â€Å"Smoking is injurious to health† on the packs is not enough. Moreover, they should respect the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). But despite restrictions to entice teenagers, their marketing is such that the youngsters are allured to try out smoking. The â€Å"cowboy† campaign of Marlboro cigarettes is a paradigm. Due to this campaign, the sales of the company increased manifolds. Smokers’ diseases and higher death rate by smoking Smoking has an ill effect on almost all the parts of a human body. In general, smoking leads to deteriorating health conditions of smokers. According to reliable sources, smoking has lead to â€Å"269,655 deaths among males and 173,940 deaths among females in the United States† (Adhikari et al, 2008, par. 3).Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Ira Ockene claims that, â€Å"As many as 30% of all coronary disease (CHD) deaths in the United States each year are attributable to cigarette smoking, with the risk being strongly dose-related. Smoking also nearl y doubles the risk of ischemic stroke† (Ockene, par. 1). Chronic bronchitis is one of the most common diseases found in smokers. Patricia Macnair claims that, â€Å"Smoking is the most important cause of chronic bronchitis† (Macnair, par. 8). A claim made by the authors of an article is very astonishing in the sense that, â€Å"The adverse health effects from cigarette smoking account for an estimated 443,000 deaths, or nearly one of every five deaths, each year in the United States† (â€Å"Health Effects of Cigarette Smoking† par. 2). A table depicting the annual death rates caused by smoking is at Appendix 1. Passive smoking affects non-smokers Passive smoking is as dangerous as smoking. Besides inhaling the dangerous smoke, the smokers exhale the remnant smoke. This smoke is also very dangerous when it mixes with the surrounding environment and goes into the lungs of the non-smokers, making them passive smokers. â€Å"Evidence suggests that exposure to secondhand smoke also can result in adverse health effects, including heart disease in non-smoking adults† (Institute of Medicine, 2009, 1). Non-smokers’ diseases and death rate caused by passive smoking Jinot and Bayard found â€Å"suggested evidence in the data that passive smoking may be associated with lung cancer (OR = 2.01, p0.03 for a one-sided test), but that is based only on the crude odds ratio in unmatched data and needs to be confirmed by a more thorough evaluation of the data† (A-102). A subsequent study was conducted and Jinot and Bayard claim that the results showed that â€Å"any effect of passive smoking on risk of lung cancer or other smoking-associated disease is at most quite small, if it exists at all† (A-104). Medical cost and insurance caused by smoking and passive smoking Just to put forth the quantum of money involved in the treatment of smoking related disease, a study conducted by McGhee et al can be very informative. McGhee et al conducted a research that showed that in Hong Kong (in the year 1998), â€Å"The annual value of direct medical costs, long term care and productivity loss was US $532 million for active smoking and US $156 million for passive smoking; passive smoking accounted for 23% of the total costs† (McGhee et al, 2006). The study further claims that â€Å"Adding the value of attributable lives lost brought the annual cost to US $9.4 billion† (McGhee et al, 2006). Governmental efforts to reduce the smoking rate A majority of health effects of smoking were known almost 40 years back. However, governments were moderate to react to the increasing health hazards. Even though there are many strategies (anti-tobacco strategies) being developed by the nations across the globe, the smoking-related deaths continue to escalate. Now there is a general understanding that in order to decrease smoking rates considerably, governments need to embrace a complete new approach to control tobacco . This might as well incorporate a variety of measures.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Negative Impacts of Smoking on Individuals and Society specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Like, a boycott of tobacco promoting and advertising; restraints on smoking out in the public places and in the work environment; increase in tobacco taxation clubbed with measures to check pirating; huge and striking health warnings on tobacco features; smoking discontinuance and health training crusades; and to follow the guidelines agreed by the health community rather than the people in the tobacco business. Strict laws should be enacted instead of waiting for voluntary control on smoking. Given the huge trouble that smoking places on health department, governments in advanced countries have reacted by presenting an array of tobacco control measures. On the contrary, the less developed countries have shown greater and effective results of their campaigns against smoking. So there is a lot to learn for governments of developed nations. A global treaty to contain tobacco trade can be very effective in reducing the diseases and loss of lives. Following are some of the initiatives that can be taken by the government. Public information campaigns Society can participate at par with the government in such campaigns. Awareness about the perilous side effects of smoking should be spread at a warfront level. Higher prices This policy has been tried by a few countries and the results were encouraging. The logic behind this, in my opinion, is that in adolescence, the children have limited pocket money and if there is a price rise, they will be left with no option than to reduce their smoking. Total ban on advertisements As mentioned earlier, the â€Å"cowboy† campaign gave such a masculine effect that people were mad about Marlboro. If, at that time, the campaign would not have been approved by the government, today, for sure, the number of smoking addicts would have been much less. The government should learn from its past follies and put a ban on any sort of advertisements regarding tobacco products. More health warnings with emotional touch â€Å"Man is a social animal†. He is attached to his family and friends with so many emotional strings. If the health warnings touch these emotional strings, it will definitely create a positive impact and people will try to keep themselves away from the hazards of smoking.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Ban on smoking at public places Success in today’s world means progress. Progress means to be on the run for better prospects. Better prospects can’t be achieved sitting at home. A person has to spend most of his time in public places; office, railway platform, bus station, etc. So if smoking is banned at public places, automatically the quantum of smoking will be reduced. Celebrities should be involved People are greatly impressed by celebrities and their life styles. So if celebrities are involved in anti-smoking campaigns, I am sure it will help in achieving the motive to a great extent. Conclusion In concluding this paper, it is understood that whatever said and done, the main responsibility rests on the government and the society. The government should take stern measures to uproot this evil. The society also has a major role to play in rooting out this evil. Adolescence is the time when most of the habits are developed. This period is most crucial for the develop ment of a human being’s personality. If certain evils are kept away from him throughout this period, it is quite possible that the person will remain aloof from inculcating a habit of such things. In my opinion, the age limit for the consumption of tobacco products should be 21 years. For addicts, quitting smoking is a battle that can be won by controlling the urge and by having a strong will power. Annotated Bibliography Adhikari, B. Kahende, J. Malarcher, A. Pechacek, T. and Tong, V. (2008). â€Å"Smoking – Attributable Mortality, Years of Potential Life Lost, and Productivity Losses – United States, 2000 – 2004.† Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 57(45), 1226-1228. Print. â€Å"Smoking – Attributes Mortality, Years of Potential Life Lost, and Productivity Losses – United States, 2000 – 2004† is a report compiled by B. Adhikari, J. Kahende, A. Malarcher, T. Pechacek, and V. Vong. The report is part of the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report and is sponsored by the Department of Health and Human Services. The report is very informative and up to date. The authors have also provided a table that shows the annual deaths and estimates of smoking-attributable mortality (SAM), years of potential life lost (YPLL), and productivity losses, by sex and cause of death. The results pertain to the United States from the year 2000 to 2004. Health Effects of Cigarette Smoking 2010. Web. cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/health_effects/effects_cig_smoking/. The article â€Å"Health Effects of Cigarette Smoking†, sponsored by the ‘Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’, makes the reader to comprehend the various ill-effects of smoking. The author has also included some astonishing facts and figures of smoking-related diseases. Even though the author hasn’t gone into the depth of everything, the article definitely includes a detailed list of the diseases associated w ith smoking. Since the targeted audience for this article is the layman, the language used in this article is very simple and explanatory. The author has used some authenticated sources for getting the information included in the article. Institute of Medicine 2009, Secondhand Smoke Exposure and Cardiovascular Effects: Making Sense of the Evidence. PDF file. 9 Apr. 2013. iom.edu/~/media/Files/Report%20Files/2009/Secondhand-Smoke-Exposure-and-Cardiovascular-Effects-Making-Sense-of-the-Evidence/Secondhand%20Smoke%20%20Report%20Brief%203.pdf. The article â€Å"Secondhand Smoke Exposure and Cardiovascular Effects: Making Sense of the Evidence† is a report published by the Institute of Medicine, in 2009. In addition to educating the reader about the serious hazards of smoking, like coronary heart disease, the report also includes the reports on the effects of ban on smoking. According to the report, there has been a reduction in the heart attack cases due to the implementation of prohibition on smoking. One negative aspect of the report is that due to the fewer quanta of available data, the effect of the ban on non-smokers could not be established. Further research includes the effects of indoor smoking prohibitions. Jinot, Jennifer, and S. Bayard. Respiratory Health Effects of Passive Smoking: Lung Cancer and Other Disorders, Washington, D.C.: Diane Publishing. 1993. Print. The authors, Jennifer Jinot and Steven Bayard, wrote the book â€Å"Respiratory Health Effects of Passive Smoking: Lung Cancer and Other Disorders† in the year 1993. The book is very informative as far as the physical and chemical aspects of the cigarette smoke are concerned. The authors have given in-depth details about all such properties. The author’s view (in fact, findings) about passive smoking is that the passive smokers are not affected to a great extent by passive smoking. According to them, the effect is very nominal. The authors have also included some studies in their book and have used the data to arrive at certain conclusions; the one on passive smoking is one of them. McGhee, SM, LM Ho, HM Lapsley, J Chau, WL Cheung, SY Ho, M Pow, TH Lam and AJ Hedley. â€Å"Cost of Tobacco-related Diseases, Including Passive Smoking, in Hong Kong.† Tobacco Control 15.2. (2006): 125-130. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Web. The journal titled, â€Å"Cost of Tobacco-related Diseases, Including Passive Smoking, in Hong Kong† has been written by the authors, SM McGhee, LM Ho, HM Lapsley, J CHau, WL Cheung, SY Ho, M Pow, TH Lam and AJ Hedley. The authors aim to bring forth the details of expenses incurred by the government in treating the smokers and the passive smokers. The journal is a well written one and includes information from reliable sources. The authors believe that the expenses incurred on the smokers and the passive smokers are a total loss to the society and as such, the government should take stern steps to curb th is menace. Adhikari, B. Kahende, J. Malarcher, A. Pechacek, T. and Tong, V. (2008). â€Å"Smoking – Attributable Mortality, Years of Potential Life Lost, and Productivity Losses – United States, 2000 – 2004.† Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 57(45), 1226-1228. Print. Health Effects of Cigarette Smoking 2010. Web. cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/health_effects/effects_cig_smoking/. Institute of Medicine 2009, Secondhand Smoke Exposure and Cardiovascular Effects: Making Sense of the Evidence. PDF file. 9 Apr. 2013. iom.edu/~/media/Files/Report%20Files/2009/Secondhand-Smoke-Exposure-and-Cardiovascular-Effects-Making-Sense-of-the-Evidence/Secondhand%20Smoke%20%20Report%20Brief%203.pdf. Jinot, Jennifer, and S. Bayard. Respiratory Health Effects of Passive Smoking: Lung Cancer and Other Disorders, Washington, D.C.: Diane Publishing. 1993. Print. Macnair, Patricia. n.d. Chronic Bronchitis, Emphysema and COPD (‘Smoker’s Lung’ ). n.d. Web. netdoctor.co.uk/diseases/facts/smokerslung.htm. McGhee, SM, LM Ho, HM Lapsley, J Chau, WL Cheung, SY Ho, M Pow, TH Lam and AJ Hedley. â€Å"Cost of Tobacco-related Diseases, Including Passive Smoking, in Hong Kong.† Tobacco Control 15.2. (2006): 125-130. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Web. Ockene, Ira. n.d. Cigarette Smoking, Cardiovascular Disease, and Stroke. N.d. Web. http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/96/9/3243.full. Appendix 1 Source: cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5745a3.htm#tab

Fashion Related Museum Response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Fashion Related Museum Response - Essay Example The Museum exhibition by Yves Saint Laurent and Halston is the premier exhibition to a clear sight into the contribution of Saint Laurent and Halston in the fashion industry (Mears 3). The vibrant nature of their careers exemplifies the dynamism of fashion, and mood and style dictate menswear collections. A look at the exhibition works from the two presents an opportunity for a student’s like me to explore the wealth of the 1970s fashions. The exhibition allows an in-depth understanding of fashion as the cultural landscape of a sexy and glamorous outlook. The main display aims at celebrating the achievements of Saint Laurent and Halston. By virtue of their exemplary designs, the two designers play the pivotal role in the definition of an indolent fashion in the 1970s. When I attended the fashion event, the works of both artists with approximately 100 exclusive collections from the FIT Museum stood thematically with a sense of style. Style evokes the qualities of individualism and displays a level of self-esteem. For Saint Laurent and Halston, the fashion of the 1970s meant the relaxation to the codes of fashion. Evidently, all the works at the exhibition display a combination of modernity and the economic mood that formed the moral fabrics of the early societies. The history of modern fashion emanates from the fashion transition pioneered by the advent of design from Saint Laurent and Halston. During their era, the two designers dominated the fashion industry with their creativity and artistry. However, as the years passed, the two grew in the making of distinct designs that were on display at the exhibitions. By shear entrance into the show, one is fascinated by the adventurous nature of the careers of Saint Laurent and Halston from works of their mind and hand. Their exhibits look dynamic and conform to the ways of modern fashion despite them being more than two decades old.

Patient safety officer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Patient safety officer - Essay Example e that standards of the institution are maintained to meet the needs of the client, and continuous improvement of systems in response to hazards that may occur are important in patient safety. By developing the hospital staff through trainings, workshops, drills, et cetera, there will be improvement in rendering care towards clients. Responsibilities of the patient safety officer include overseeing if standards for safety are followed, taking action for hazards, and facilitating staff development activities. As a responsibility of health care institutions to prevent patients from acquiring hospital-associated infections (HAI), infection control programs are given importance in hospitals. Recent studies propose that the use of evidenced-based practices (EBPs) can help prevent HAIs (Yokoe & Classen, 2008, p.S3). In addition, monitoring of performance based on patient outcomes are recommended evaluative measures. Documentation of infections that occur, if any, as well as the outcomes of EBPs application are important ways to â€Å"improve care and as a means to enable customers to choose safer care† (p.S6). In the United States, the Joint Commission for the Accreditation of Health care Organizations directs the participation of health care facilities in hazard surveillance rounds (Prezant, et al., p.92). This is done to assess compliance gaps and identify hazardous conditions, performed semiannually in hospitals and annually in clinics (p.92). It is the duty of the safety officer or manager to lead the activity, record the process, report data, and facilitate improvements with the safe committee (p.92). Risks or hazards identified are managed according to the four Ts strategy of terminating, treating, transferring, and tolerating which may also be adapted in health care. Termination can be done either by making changes in materials used or terminating the operation associated with the risk (Stephans, 2004, p.121). Treatment is performed by applying controls that

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles of Clobetasol for Psoriasis

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles of Clobetasol for Psoriasis Formulation and Evaluation of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles of Clobetasol for Topical Treatment of Psoriasis CHAPTER 4 Methodology 4. METHODOLOGY MATERIALS USED: Table 5: LIST OF CHEMICALS USED WITH SUPPLIERS Table 6: LIST OF EUIPMENTS USED WITH SUPPLIERS Physicochemical study on the drug: Melting point determination Melting point is the temperature at which the pure liquid and solid exist in equilibrium. In practice it is taken as equilibrium mixture at an external pressure of 1 atmosphere; this is sometimes known as normal melting point. The Thiel’s tube method of melting point determination liquid paraffin was used in present study. UV spectrum UV scanning was done for pure drug from 200-400 nm in the dilution medium of methanol and in the dilution medium of phosphate buffer pH 7.4 Standard calibration curves of Clobetasol: Reagents Methanol Phosphate Buffer pH 7.4 114,115 Medium- Methanol  116 50 mg accurately weighed CP was dissolved in the methanol and volume was made up to 50ml with methanol [Stock 1]. From stock 1, different dilutions were prepared in the concentration range of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 µ g/ml using methanol as dilution medium. The absorbance of these solutions was measured against blank as methanol in UV spectrophotometer at 240 nm. Medium- Phosphate buffer pH 7.4 solution 50 mg accurately weighed CP was dissolved in the methanol and volume was made up to 100ml with methanol [Stock 1]. From stock 1, different dilutions were prepared in the concentration range of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 µ g/ml using Phosphate buffer pH 7.4 solution. The absorbance of these solutions was measured against Phosphate buffer pH 7.4 solution as blank in UV spectrophotometer at 239 nm. Compatibility studies of drug and polymers: FTIR spectra of pure clobetasol, physical mixtures, and SLN formulations are carried out to determine if there was any interaction between the drug and the other formulation components117. Since IR is related to covalent bonds, the spectra can provide detailed information about the structure of molecular compounds. In order to establish this  point, comparisons were made between the spectrum of the substances and pure compound. The Preformulation study was carried out prior to the development of the dosage forms. The compatibility of the drug and the excipients used were determined by IR spectrometer Shimadzu 8400 series. The spectra of formulations were compared with that of pure drug in order to ascertain for any possible interaction between polymer and drug. Preliminary studies: Initially, SLN was prepared by solvent injection method by using clobetasol (drug), carnauba wax and beeswax as lipid phase, cetyl alcohol and lecithin soya as surfactants. Tween 20 as co surfactant phase and finally distilled water to make up the volume. Where in this method, both liquid phase and lipid phase were heated to 70-75oC. When lipid phase was heated to desired temperature drug was dispersed in it and added to aqueous phase under the magnetic stirrer for 30mins. The lipid phase is added in to aquoes phase by drop wise using syringe. Thus SLNs were formed due to rapid crystallization of oil droplets and precipitation. This respective formulation design is shown in table 7. But the formed SLN was not dried and unstable. Therefore lipid extrusion method was used to prepare various formulations with different concentrations of lipid in an effort to optimize the formulations for the particle size ranging in nano scale. Table 7: Formulation design for solvent injection method The lipid extrusion method was adopted to prepare SLN. At 25mg of CP is kept constant in all formulation. Initially, the drug with different lipids tried with different concentration constant speed. The SLN were evaluated for particle size. The composition of formulation is shown in table. Formulation design:11,17,18 Procedure for preparation of SLN by lipid extrusion technique: Lipid extrusion is carried out at temperatures above the melting point of the lipid and is similar to the homogenization of an emulsion. A pre-emulsion of the drug loaded lipid melt and the aqueous emulsifier phase (same temperature) is obtained by high-shear mixing device (like Polytron PT 1600E homogenizer). High pressure homogenization of the pre-emulsion is done above the lipid melting point. Usually, lower particle sizes are obtained at higher processing temperatures because of lowered viscosity of the lipid phase. Fig 11: Schematic representation of SLN preparation by lipid extrusion Table 8: Formulation design for lipid extrusion method Table 9: Formulation design with stirring speed and duration of rotation using Polytron pt 1600E for Formulation F EVALUTION OF SLN: Physical Evaluations: Visual appearance pH: The pH of SLN formulations were measured using pH paper. Rheological studies Rheological properties (study of deformation and flow of matter) are required in various pharmaceutical areas. It helps to monitor the effect of vehicles consistency on release of drug from the preparations and subsequent percutaneous absorption. Also it is important from the manufacturing point of view. Viscosity measurements were carried out using a Brookfield viscometer (T – bar spindle). The formulation of SLN was kept in 100ml beaker and dial readings was noted at 3, 5, 6, 10, 12, 20, 30, 50 and 60 rpm. The speed was then successively lowered and the corresponding dial readings were noted. Particle Size Analysis118: The particle size should be less than 1000 nm in nanoparticles. It can be analyzed by using Malvern particle size analyzer. Particles in the size range of colloids display constant random thermal motion which is known as Brownian motion. This motion causes the intensity of light scattered by the particles to vary with time. The larger the particle slower their motion and hence the smaller the variation in intensity of light scattered. Photon correlation spectroscopy uses the rate of change in the intensity to determine the size distribution of particles. The zetasizer has a correlator with 64 channels. Each of this channel measures changes in light fluctuation over a defined time span. The time span is known as the sample time or delay time the correlator measures the light intensity by counting photons. For a very short time period the changes in light intensities will be very small as the particles had very little time to move. The position of the particles can be statistically defined as being highly correlated, Contrast to this with a long sample time, particles will have moved randomly from their initial positions. Therefore the particles can be described statistically as not being correlated. Zeta potential measurement Zeta potential of the SLNs were measured by malveren zetasizer. The zetasizer mainly consist of laser which is used to provide a light source to illuminate the particles within the sample. For zetapotential measurements this light splits to provide an incident and reference beam. The incident laser beam passes through the centre of the sample cell, and the scattered light at an angle of about 130 is detected. when an electric field is applied to the cell, any particles moving through the measurement volume will cause the intensity of light detected to fluctuate with a frequency proportional to the particle speed and this information is passed to the digital signal possessor and then to a computer. Zetasizer software produces a frequency spectrum from which the electrophoretic mobility hence the zeta potential  is calculated. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM): Surface morphology of the specimen will be determined by using a scanning electron microscope. Procedure: The samples are dried thoroughly in vaccum desicator before mounting on brass specimen studies, using double sided adhesive tape. Gold-palladium alloy of 120 °A Knees was coated on the sample sputter coating unit (Model E5 100 Polaron U.K) in Argon at ambient of 8-10 with plasma voltage about 20mA. The sputtering was done for nearly 5 minutes to obtain uniform coating on the sample to enable good quality SEM images. The SEM was operated at low accelerating voltage of about 15KV with load current about 80mA.The condenser lens position was maintained betwee 4.4-5.1. The objective lens aperture has a diameter of 240 microns and working distance WD=39mm. Drug content119: The drug equivalent to 10 mg of formulation was taken and dissolved in small quantity of methanol. Then the formulation is warmed on the water bath so that the drug present in the formulation was completely dissolved. Then the solution was filtered through Whattman filter paper in 25 ml. volumetric flask and volume was made up to the mark by methanol to give concentration of 1000 ÃŽ ¼g/ml. for Clobetasol. Then 1 ml. was pipetted out in 100 ml. volumetric flask to give concentration of 10ÃŽ ¼g/ml and then absorbance was measured at 240 nm. In-vitro release studies114,115,120: In Franz diffusion cell, 6 gm. of sample was kept in donor compartment. The entire surface of cellophane membrane was in contact with the receptor compartment containing 50 ml of phosphate buffer pH 7.4. The receptor compartment was continuously stirred using the magnetic stirrer. The temperature was maintained 35 °C. The study was carried out for 24 hrs and the sample was withdrawn at 30 minute time interval and same volume was replaced with free phosphate buffer. The content of clobetasol from withdrawn sample was measured after suitable dilution. Stability studies: Whenever a new formulation is developed, it is very essential to establish that the therapeutic activity of the drug has not undergone any change. To conform this, the selected formulations were subjected to stability studies. Generally, the observation of the rate at which the product degrades under normal room temperature requires long time. To avoid this undesirable delay, the principles of the accelerated stability studies are adopted. The International Conference of Harmonization guidelines titled â€Å"stability testing for drug substance and product† describes the stability tests requirements for drug registration applications in the European Union, Japan and United States of America. Table 10: International climatic zones and climatic conditions Table 11: General stability testing consideration Study

being there Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Being There is the story of Chance, a simple gardener turned American media hero. He seems to know nothing but television and gardening. His thoughts and judgments are products of television and his gardening experience. Yet through his simple mild mannered ways he unintentionally becomes the center of America’s business news. The author of Being There, Jerzy Kosinski said â€Å"To read a novel is to practice for real life. Fiction doesn’t change anybody’s life, it merely hints at the different ways of looking at oneself, at others, and at society† Since Chance was not able to read, television shows were his novels. Television was his practice for real life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Television was like a mirror for Chance. Chance felt, â€Å"by changing the channel he could change himself† He was able to imagine himself to be people on television. I believe this is why Chance was able to put on the appearance he had even if it was unintentional. His appeal and gestures were all products of TV’s influence. With the help of the old man’s suit, Chance passed for a wealthy business man without even trying or knowing.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Having no contact with the outside world growing up, television was Chance’s only hint of what society was like. By flipping through the channels, Chance noticed the different ways people would interact with each other. Television provided him with the hints of different ways of looking at people and society. ...

Research Qualitative Review

This paper will critique the qualitative study written by Peiters, et al. (2011), which looks at the journey and barriers older women diagnosed with breast cancer must hurdle to receive treatment. This research was to reveal the complexities of breast cancer diagnosis, treatment and life in general for women greater than seventy-years old. To achieve this task, Peiters, et al. , (2011) implemented the constructivist grounded theory. The data analysis approach appropriately utilized for this research was constructivist grounded theory. This theory allows for self reflection during data gathering and analysis, which divulges any influential prejudices that may arise from both researcher and study subject. Influencing this theory is symbolic interactionism which emphasizes ones’ ultimate ambition and the lifelong social synergy that transpires to achieve it (Peiters, et al. , 2011). The recruitment of participants was obtained by posting flyers in public areas in Southern California and two bordering states. The locations targeted were oncology departments, cancer support agencies, oncologist offices, churches, senior community centers, and retirement centers. Newspaper advertisements, as well were used to elicit participation. Purposive and snowballing techniques were utilized. Screening for eligibility, clearly defined, was done via telephone for inclusions which ended with eighteen women all over the age of seventy, completed treatment for treatment for breast cancer within the last three to fifteen months. Informed consent was obtained and interviews took place mainly in homes or apartments lasting up to two and a half hours. One limitation of the study was that second interviews stopped at only ten women and may have excluded valuable new incite to the study, although researchers claim that second interviews revealed no new data, hence implying data saturation. Adequate thick description was given of the participants, setting and study processes to ensure transferability (Polit & Beck, 2012). Interviews were guided by a questionnaire and responses were tape recorded, followed by verbatim transcription. Examples of interview questions were provided for the reader to convey effectiveness of the process (Polit & Beck, 2012). Other helpful tables provided were the sociodemographic and clinical characteristics. Category schemes revealed are three barriers that theses breast cancer survivors faced, which were lack of information, preexisting co-morbidities and multiple health care appointments. These schemes prove logical for the study as they helped elaborate the purpose of the research. Multiple passages from the participants were extracted to give evidence of well interpreted data and emotional state of the participants. Data analysis was systematic initial coding, followed by focused coding using ATLAS. ti, version 6. to magnify reoccurring data. To create a audit trail, memos, field notes and diagrams were written. Two researchers, one of them being the principle investigator and the other well versed in grounded theory analysis, were responsible for coding and analyzing the data. In nursing the level of evidence provides assurance for the methods that were utilized for the study (Polit & Beck, 2012). This research would qualify as level VI, given that it is a single descriptive, qualitative, physiologic study specific to women aged seventy or older and their journey through life with breast cancer. The goals of this research are affirmed by the extensive detailed interviews of eighteen older women and their struggles with breast cancer. Each participant plummeted through barricades to recieveing health care. The importance of an oncology nurse navigator emerged as a valuable role to help clarify the process of obtaining services for healthcare. Meticulous care was taken in the transcription of taped interviews and explicit excerpts were bestowed to the reader to ensure trustworthiness.

Walk Into School And Class For The First Time Since High...

I’m about to walk into school and go to class for the first time since high school. It’s been fifteen years and I never thought that I would make it back to school. I mean I had hope to go to school again just didn’t ever really think about it. When life hits hard, people just don’t have as much time to do the things they grew up thinking they would do. Stop and smell the roses, that kind of thing. Well that’s going to change about my life, I’m going to be the guy that went back to school. I dropped out of school when I was seventeen. At the time I wasn’t living with my parents and wasn’t in Tennessee where I grew up. It was new and exciting to me, living in a big city, working, and doing my own thing in Dallas, Texas. Five years go by and I had a good job and started to work a second job for the extra money. I started hanging out with college kids thinking to myself that this is what I need to be doing with my life, going back to school, getting a good job, and being able to say to my kids that I had my own success story. I set up an appointment to take the GED and thought this is going to go great. Thought I would have time to study and get a good score. Then I got tired of studying and juggling my time at home with the kids and wife. I went to take the test thinking that I remember most of what I learned in high school. I flew through the test and the teachers there were asking me if I was sure that I didn’t need more time. They told me good luck as I was leaving becauseShow MoreRelatedEssay On A Whole New World890 Words   |  4 Pagesbed on August 10th. When I realized what time it was my mind blew into a million pieces. I was finally going to be in high school, and I couldn’t believe the first day of my high school experience had finally come. 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Every 4 Â ½ minutes a baby is born premature and/or with a birth defect. According to the CDC, the percentage of babies born in the U.S that are premature or have some kind of birth defect is 9.6% with a slight increase since 2015 of 9.63%. The ethical dilemma and problems of caring and treating premature and congenitally ill infants is not new. In the past, critically ill neonates were weighed every day, kept warm, breast fed, and kept isolated away from others. They are often sent home to be cared for by the parents and maybe a midwife and placed in an incubator that was made of scrap materials. Neonatologist, nurses and parents would only hope for the best turn out of the infant. Premature and critically ill babies either lived or died without any kind of medical intervention at all. It wasn’t until 1922 that the intensive care unit (NICU) was established in hospitals. Even with the establishment of the NICU and advanced technology the ethical questions still arise. The Nuffied Council on Bioethics (2006) report Critical Care Decisions in Fetal and Neonatal Medicine states there are three main ethical issues surrounding neonatal intensive care by both professionals and the public which includes the borderline of viability, fetal medicine and the critical care decision-making for babies receiving intensive care (Teasdale, D. 2007). The idea of the viable infant has changed over the years with the continuing progress and growth of the neonatal intensive care unit, making

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The Impact of Monetary Policy on Agricultural Output in Nigeria free essay sample

The significance of agriculture in bringing about economic growth and development of a nation cannot be underestimated, the reason why a nation possesses sustainable food security, is because it produces enough food to feed her citizens and even export these goods to other needy countries thereby generating foreign exchange which in turn increases the national income in the long-run. The agricultural sector serves all other sectors in the economy especially the industrial sector. The problem facing the Nigerian agricultural economy is inadequate capital and credit for start-up, investment and expansion. Monetary policy through its influence on the financial sector of the economy plays a major role in making credit available to the agricultural sector. Monetary policy refers to the combination of measures designed to regulate the value, supply and cost of money in an economy. It can be described as the art of controlling the direction and movement of credit facilities in pursuance of stable price and economy growth in an economy (CBN, 1992). Monetary policy in the Nigerian context refers to the actions of the Central Bank of Nigeria to regulate the money supply which could be through discretional monetary policy instruments such as the open market operation (OMO), discount rate, reserve requirement, moral suasion, direct control of banking system credit, and direct regulation of interest rate (Iyoha, 2002). The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) derives its mandate from the CBN Act of 1958. Section one of the CBN Decree No. 4 of 1991, stipulates that the principal objects of the Bank shall be to issue legal tender currency in Nigeria; maintain external reserves to safeguard the international value of the legal tender currency, promote monetary stability and a sound financial system in Nigeria, and act as banker and financial adviser to the Federal Government (CBN, 2006). Therefore the central bank is the principal monetary authority. Agriculture in the context of the economy is tied with the various sectors and is essential f or generating broad based growth necessary for development. Agriculture is fundamental to the sustenance of life and is the bedrock of economic development, especially in the provision of adequate and nutritious food vital for human development, the sector is a catalyst and major source of raw materials for the industrial sector and provides most of the staple food consumed by the 120 million Nigerians. Although developments in the oil sector have dominated Nigerias economic scene since the mid-1970s, the country remains basically agricultural. More than 70 percent of its population depends on agriculture, which contributes roughly 25 percent of GDP and 60 percent of non-oil exports. Monetary policy facilitates the establishment of agricultural businesses through availability of credit and finance for start-up, investments, and expansion. The CBN controls the availability of credit through monetary policy instruments. These instruments affect agricultural output through agricultural banks and other financial institutions. Therefore, in our study of agricultural output monetary policy is a very important factor. 1. 2 Statement Of The Problem Before the rapid rise in oil export revenue, Nigeria was a major exporter of agricultural produce, especially cocoa, groundnuts, cotton, palm oil, palm kernel, and rubber. Since then however both the volume and the range of agricultural exports has declined sharply and agricultural imports have increased dramatically. In addition, Nigeria no longer produces sufficient food for the countrys large and rapidly growing population. The average annual rate of real output growth for food crops fell to about 2 percent a year during the 1970s. Between 1970 and 1975, however, the output of export crops dropped 17percent, the food import bill rose more than 10-fold in 1970-1980. Low agricultural output has a negative effect on the economy as a whole, there is a low production of goods for food and raw materials for industries. A major challenge facing Nigeria is the inability to capture the financial services requirements of farmers and agribusiness owners who constitute about 70 percent of the population. Farmers need access to capital to purchase land and equipment and to invest in the development of new products, services, production technologies and marketing strategies. Yet banks are often reluctant to lend money to farmers for agricultural enterprises due to the lack of creditability and collateral. Therefore there is need for a research in order to effect necessary changes because activities of the monetary authorities through monetary policy affect the financial institutions and credit availability to the agricultural sector in no small measure this will further affect agricultural output positively. 1. 3 Scope of Study This research seeks to study agricultural output and the how monetary policy affects it. The study shall be made using secondary time series data, for a span of 26 years that is from 1980 to 2006 which is sufficient and suitable for conducting a research, making new findings and relevant recommendations. . 4 Objectives of Study The main objectives of this research are as follows: 1) To identify the monetary policy instruments used to support the agricultural sector. 2) To examine the impact of prime lending rate, cash reserve ratio, agricultural credit guarantee scheme fund and money supply on agricultural output. 3) To find out if there is a long-run relations hip between certain monetary channels and variables such as real exchange rates, monetary policy rate, private investments in agriculture, agricultural credit guarantee scheme fund, and agricultural output. 1. Significance of Study Most researches on the Nigerian agricultural sector has not been specific enough in terms of laying emphasis on credit availability in relation to monetary policy and the actions of the Central Bank of Nigeria as it affects the rural farmer and agricultural businesses, which affect the total agricultural output in the economy. This research is specific, it emphasizes the effect of the government’s actions through monetary policy on agricultural output, which will immensely contribute to current knowledge on the topic under research. 1. 6 Research Questions ) What effect(s) will monetary policy instruments have on agricultural output? 2) How can we use liquidity ratio, prime lending rate, cash reserve ratio, agricultural credit guarantees scheme fun d and money supply to enhance agricultural crop output? 3) Is there a long-run relationship between real exchange rates, monetary policy rate, and private investments in agriculture, agricultural credit guarantee scheme fund, and agricultural output? 1. 7 Hypothesis of the Study Ho: there is no relationship between liquidity ratios, prime lending rate, cash reserve ratio, money supply, ACGSF and agricultural output. H1: there is a relationship between liquidity ratios, prime lending rate, cash reserve ratio, money supply, ACGSF and agricultural output. Ho: there is no long-run relationship between real exchange rate, MPR, investment, ACGSF and agricultural output. H1: there is a long-run relationship between real exchange rate, MPR, investment, ACGSF and agricultural output. 1. 8 Methodology of the Study A Descriptive Statistical Analysis as well as an Econometric Analysis using the Johansen cointegration test and a vector error correction method (VECM) were the methods employed to carry out an investigation on the subject matter. . 9 Data Sources Data for this study is obtained from CBN Annual Report, Statement of Accounts (2006), Statistical Bulletin (2006) volume 16 and the United Nations Statistical Database. 1. 10 Outline of Chapters This study is divided into five chapters where chapter one is the introduction, chapter two is made up of literature review and theoretical framework, chapter three consists of the research methodology, chapter four carries out the data interpretation and analysis, and finally chapter five gives a summary, findings and conclusion and ends with a recommendation. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2. 1 Introduction Nigeria is endowed with rich agricultural resources but the agricultural sector suffers stunted growth, more than fifty per cent of the countrys agricultural land lie fallow, and the remaining per cent of cultivated agricultural land is handled by smallholders and traditional farmers who use udimentary production techniques, having poor access to modern inputs with resultant low yields, inadequate credit facilities resulting in poor infrastructural facilities, inadequate access to markets leading to low income, land and environmental degradation bringing about low production, and inadequate research and extension services discouraging expansion and innovation. The study on how the government through monetary policy instruments and variables affect agricultural output is necessary for accelerated growth in the sector because the development of the sector rests on its access to credit. These instruments that affect agricultural output could be in the form of moral suasions, directives, prime lending rate, liquidity ratio, cash reserve ratio, reserve requirement and money supply among others. This chapter starts by researching the historical background of agriculture and monetary policy in Nigeria, a theoretical framework for the variables used, followed by a review of current literature. 2. 2 Monetary Policy and Agriculture in Nigeria The Government has instituted various policies to achieve its aims of increasing agricultural output by making credit available through a commercial bill financing scheme; regional commodity boards (later called national commodity boards); an export financing and rediscount facility (1987); the Nigerian Agricultural Cooperative and Rural Development Bank Ltd; community banks, People’s Bank; the Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme Fund (ACGSF); and the Small and Medium Enterprises Equity Investment Scheme among others. Among others. These policies have contributed to improving the livelihoods of farmers and entrepreneurs. (Olaitan, 2006). Also, a number of strategies have been articulated and implemented in a bid to improve on agricultural output, notably the River Basin Development Authority, integrated rural development programmes, national accelerated food production programme, Operation Feed the Nation, and green revolution and agricultural development programmes. These programmes have combined various price and non-price incentives in attempts to restructure the agricultural sector, increase efficiency and raise production (Iyoha and Oriakhi, 2002). In the pre-SAP era, government philosophy of agricultural development was characterized by minimum direct government intervention in agriculture, Government efforts were merely supportive of the activities of these farmers and government efforts largely took the form of agricultural research, extension and export crop marketing, and pricing activities. Operation Feed the Nation (1976-79) and the Green Revolution Programme (1979-83) were also launched during this phase. The Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) campaign, which was launched by both Federal and State military governments in 1976, had the objectives of mobilizing the country towards self-sufficiency and self-reliance in food through increased food production, encouraging citizens who hitherto relied on buying food to grow their own. The OFN programme was later integrated into the Green Revolution programme launched by the civilian government of the Second Republic. Two important initiatives that were part of these programmes were the setting up of the Nigerian Agricultural and Co-operative Bank (NACB) and the Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme Fund (ACGSF). Their main objective was the provision of adequate finance to farmers at affordable terms. According to Manyong et al (2003), monetary policies that were of relevance to agriculture during the period before SAP (Structural Adjustment Policy) centered mainly on those designed to direct credit to the agricultural sector on concessionary terms. The Central Bank of Nigeria stipulated minimum percentages of commercial and merchant bank loans that should go to the agricultural sector, the launching of a Rural Banking Scheme in 1977 under which designated commercial banks were required to open specified numbers of rural branches in different parts of the country and with at least 40 per cent of the total deposit in these rural banks lent to borrowers within those rural areas. Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme Fund (ACGSF) was launched in 1977 to reduce the risk borne by commercial banks in extending credit to farmers under this scheme, the Central Bank of Nigeria guaranteed up to about 75 per cent of the value of the principal and interest on loans granted to farmers by any commercial bank up to some stipulated maximum amounts for individuals and corporate bodies, as a matter of policy, the naira was allowed to appreciate in this period. In the period, three exchange rate systems were adopted. The fixed rate system was adapted from 1960 to 1972, the managed floating system was adapted from 1973 to 1978, while the pegged system (i. e. pegged to a currency basket) was adapted from 1979 to 1985 (Iwayemi 1995). In the period between 1986 and 1994 which is the SAP era, the structural adjustment program had been ssigned the objectives of restructuring and diversifying the economy’s production base, rationalizing consumption patterns, and reducing the economy’s dependence on petroleum exports and commodity imports, expanding non-oil exports, reducing the import content of locally produced goods, attaining self-sufficiency in food and raw material production within the shortest time possible, rationalizing the country’s monetary and fiscal policies, liberalizing the country’s external trade and payments systems and adopting appropriate measures to give the private sector a larger role in the domes tic economy, increase the reliance of the economy on market forces, and reduce administrative control of the economy by Government. Clearly, most of the objectives depended critically on agriculture for their achievement. Hence, it might be assumed that agriculture was the cornerstone of the structural adjustment program. As far as Nigeria was concerned, and with particular reference to the country’s agricultural sector adjustment process, the economic philosophy underlying the structural adjustment program had as its key elements the principles that agriculture was essentially a private-sector business and the role of Government must be largely facilitating and supportive of private sector initiative. The agricultural economy should be as free of government administrative control as possible and market forces must be allowed to play a leading role in directing the economy; the agricultural economy should be more inward looking and self-reliant by depending more on local resources while also ensuring self-sufficiency in food production and the supply of raw materials to industries; the agricultural economy should serve as a primary avenue for the diversification of exports. The agricultural policy for Nigeria was launched in 1988; the agricultural policy document contained the SAP package as it related to the agricultural sector. The overall policy objective was to achieve self-sustaining growth in all the agricultural subsectors and the realization of structural transformation for socioeconomic development of the rural areas. Specifically, policy aimed to attain self-sufficiency in basic food commodities, increase production of agricultural raw materials, increase production and processing of export crops, and diversify the country’s export base. The post SAP era (1994-date) includes the New Agricultural Policy established in 2001 which is an attempt to overcome the pitfalls of the past policies. It has the overall goal of attaining elf-sustaining growth in all subsectors of agriculture, the structural transformation necessary for the overall socioeconomic development of the country, and the improvement of the quality of life of Nigerians its po licies are being pursued within the framework of NEEDS (National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy). NEEDS was formulated with the objective of reducing poverty, generating employment and creating wealth. In 2003, credit delivery to real sector was encouraged through the Small and Medium Industries Equity Investment Scheme (SMIES) and an incentive of lower Cash Reserve Requirement (CRR) regime was prescribed for those banks that increased their credit allocation to the real sector by 20 per cent or more. Moreover, the Bank provided guarantees for agricultural loans under the Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme (ACGS). As part of the comprehensive reform in the financial system and in line with its developmental role, the CBN launched the National Micro Finance Policy in 2006. The policy was propelled by the need to reduce poverty, generate employment, and stimulate economic growth through the provision of credit and other financial services on a sustainable basis to the economically active poor, who are not adequately catered for by the existing formal system. The main objectives of the policy are to make financial services accessible to a large segment of the potentially productive Nigerian population which otherwise would have little or no access to financial services e. g. ural farmers, to promote synergy and mainstreaming of the informal subsector into the national financial system. An Agricultural Credit Support Scheme, hereafter referred to as ACSS, has been established through the initiative of the Federal Government and the Central Bank of Nigeria with the active support and participation of the Bankers Committee. The purpose of the ACSS is to develop the agricultural sector of the Nigerian economy by providing credit facilities to farmers at single digit interest rate. This is to enable farmers exploit the untapped potentials of the sector with a view to reducing the cost of agricultural product ion, and increase output on a sustainable basis. These efforts are expected to lead to fall in prices of agricultural produce, especially food items, thereby leading to reduction in inflation rate, generate surplus for export, diversify the revenue base and increased foreign exchange earnings for the country. 2. 3 Theoretical Framework This can also be referred to as the Analytical framework of this project, this will provide a basis for our empirical analysis. This section will be examining the theories that relate to the research questions and hypothesis in terms of the impact of monetary policy on agricultural output. 2. 4. 1 Supply-Leading and Demand-Following Hypothesis The â€Å"finance-led growth† hypothesis postulates the â€Å"supply-leading† relationship between financial and economic developments. It is argued that the existence of financial sector, as well-functioning financial intermediations in channeling the limited resources from surplus units to deficit units, would provide efficient allocation resources thereby leading the other economic sectors in their growth process. Indeed, a number of studies have argued that the development of financial sector has significantly promoted economic development (Schumpeter, 1912; Levine, 1997). In contrast, the â€Å"growth-led finance† hypothesis states that a high economic growth may create demand for certain financial instruments and arrangements and the financial markets are effectively response to these demands and changes. In other words, this hypothes issuggests a â€Å"demand following† relationship between financial and economic developments. The impact of economic growth on the financial development has been documented inRobinson (1952) and Romer (1990), among others. According to Patrick (1966), typical statements indicate that the financial system somehow accommodates growth when it is efficient or restricts growth of real per capita output if it is inefficient therefore ineffective and unable to mobilize funds to the deficit sectors of the economy. For example, It seems to be the case that where enterprise leads finance follows. In this view, the lack of financial institutions in underdeveloped countries is simply an indication of the lack of demand for their services. We may term as demand-following the phenomenon in which the creation of modern Financial institutions, their financial assets and liabilities, and related financial services is in response to the demand for these services by investors and savers in the real economy. In this case, the evolutionary development of the financial system is a continuing consequence of the pervasive, sweeping process of economic development. The emerging financial system is shaped both by changes in objective opportunities the economic environment, the institutional framework-and by changes in subjective responses-individual motivations, attitudes, tastes, preferences. The nature of the demand for financial services depends upon the growth of real output and upon the commercialization and monetization of agriculture and other traditional subsistence sectors. Patrick advocated that in the earliest stages of economic development proactive government interventions in the form of institution building, suppressed interest rates and directed credit policies were necessary to provide the financial impetus necessary for economic development. Through the supply-leading thesis, Patrick urged that financial institutions play a leading role in promoting growth by ensuring the availability of low cost credit to potential investors. Consequently, it was prudent to build institutions well in advance of demand for their services, and interventionist policies put in place to make finance a catalyst in real sector development. Patrick, however, acknowledged a demand-following thesis when he argued that the financial sector expands as a consequence to the demand created from growth within the real economy and is thus dependant on stimulation from market sources (Gockel, 2002). According to Woo (1986), Patrick identified two possible patterns in the relationship between financial development and the economy. In the first, growth induces an expansion of the financial system. According to this view, called demand-following, the lack of financial growth is a manifestation of the lack of demand for financial services. As the real side of the economy develops say improvement in agricultural output, its demands for various new financial services materialize, and these are met rather passively from the financial side. In the second pattern the expansion of the financial system precedes the demand for its services. Channeling scarce re-sources from (small) savers to (large) investors according to relative rates of return, the financial sector precedes and induces real growth. The deliberate establishment and promotion of financial institutions in many less developed countries (LDCs) might reflect this belief in the supply-leading relationship between the two developments. When there is an increase in production in the real economy say agricultural sector, demand for financial intermediation will tend to increase this is a demand-following situation and when there is availability of credit facilities as a result of government intervention in the financial sector through the manipulation of monetary policy instruments say a reduction in cash reserve requirement of agricultural banks in Nigeria or prime lending rate to the agribusinesses and maybe financial development in the economy as a whole, agricultural output will increase due to availability of credit for startup, investment in agriculture and expansion of agribusinesses, this is a supply-leading scenario. 2. 4. 2 The Monetary Transmission Mechanism Monetary transmission mechanism is the mechanism through which changes in money supply affects the decisions of firms, households, financial intermediaries, investors and ultimately alters the level of economic activities and prices it can be thought o f as encompassing the various ways in which monetary policy shocks propagate through the economy ( Kuttner, 2003). To examine the effect of monetary policy on agricultural output in Nigeria, it is essential to understand the channel through which monetary policy transcends to affect output and prices in the economy. According to Kuttner (2003), there are four channels through which monetary policy transcends into the economy namely: interest rate, exchange rate, bank lending rate, and the wealth channel. But in this study we will be laying emphasis on the first three channels. The interest rate channel is the primary mechanism at work in conventional macroeconomic models. The basic idea is straightforward: given some degree of price stickiness, an increase in nominal interest rates, for example, translates into an increase in the real rate of interest and the user cost of capital. These changes in turn lead to a postponement in consumption or a reduction in investment spending. The exchange rate channel is an important element in conventional open-economy macroeconomic models. The chain of transmission here runs from interest rates to the exchange rate via the uncovered interest rate parity condition relating interest rate differentials to expected exchange rate movements. Thus, an increase in the domestic interest rate, relative to foreign rates, would lead to a stronger currency and a reduction both in net exports and in the overall level of aggregate demand. The bank lending channel and the balance sheet channel, also allow the effects of monetary policy actions to propagate through the real economy. According to this lending view, banks play a special role in the economy not just by bank deposits that contribute to the broad monetary aggregates, but also by holding bank loans for which few close substitutes exist. An open market operation that leads first to a contraction in the supply of money and then to a contraction in bank deposits requires banks that are especially dependent on deposits to cut back on their lending and firms that are especially dependent on bank loans to cut back on their investment spending. Financial market imperfections confronting individual banks and firms thereby contribute, in the aggregate, to the decline in output and employment that follows a monetary tightening. 2. Review of Current Literature In Less Developed countries like Nigeria markets and financial institutions are highly distorted, often externally dependent and spatially fragmented. Nigeria lacks transparency (full disclosure of the quality of loan portfolio). Nigeria is operating a dua l monetary system: a small and often externally controlled or influenced financial institution, catering to the financial needs of the middle-and upper-class local and foreign businesses in both the agricultural and industrial sectors serving the needs of the wealthy industrial elites while neglecting the requirement of the relatively poor and the agricultural economy. Monetary policy in developed countries grossly simplifies a complex process, it does point out two important aspects that developing countries such as Nigeria lacks: the existence of highly organized, economically interdependent, and efficiently functioning money and credit markets. There is minimum interference in the flow of financial resources in and out of saving banks, micro finance banks, commercial banks, and other nationally regulated public and private financial intermediaries. There tends to be consistency and relative uniformity of interest rates in different sectors of the economy and all regions of the country. Financial intermediaries are thus, able to efficiently allocate and mobilize surplus private savings to the deficit sectors of the economy (Todaro, 2003). If developing countries such as Nigeria fails in the task of developing the banking facilities, saving institutions, reorganization of agricultural and industrial credit, and a sound central banking the agricultural economy which is a vital and sensitive sector would either go slow, even stagnate and this will invariably compel it to switch over its economic system to overall planning and allocation of resources through direct state control (Jinghan 2005). The role of Agriculture remains significant in the Nigerian economy despite the strategic importance of oil. According to Our Planet (2006), the importance of the agricultural sector includes, providing adequate and affordable food for increasing populations, supplying raw materials to growing and diversifying domestic industrial sectors, releasing labour for the growing industrial sector, enlarging the size of an effective market for the products of the domestic industrial sector, providing employment and livelihoods, and alleviat ing poverty, for a large percentage of the rural population. And finally, agriculture earns and saves foreign exchange and accumulates domestic savings for investment and capital formation, because the more prosperous the agricultural and rural sector, the more people can save money, paving the way for a thriving banking sector that can finance further industrial development without relying unnecessarily on foreign debt. If agriculture is this important in the economy factors that will help accelerate growth in the sector must be considered, such as access to finance, which is the problem of most less developed countries. The monetary policy of the Nigerian economy will help propel this cause as its policies have great influence on the financial sector of the country. Changes in the interest rate will have an effect on a farmers decision to borrow credit and thus on the farm production and inventory decisions. If government conducts a contractionary monetary policy that is, reduces the money supply which will increase the interest rate the agricultural sector will be affected in two ways, first a higher interest rate will increase the cost of borrowing for production loans which in turn raises the cost of production and thereby eventually reduces agricultural output, at the same time the higher interest rate will raise the storage cost of commodity reserves and cause farmers to reduce inventories, thereby decreasing the demand for stock inventories ( Devadoss amp; Meyers 1986). According to Kristinek amp; Anderson (2002), Edward Schuh (1974) argued that the overvalued currency causes the decline in the agricultural exports due to their relative expense in other countries, as it leads to depressed prices and lower farm profits, causing an undervaluation of farm resources and oversupply of output. Schuh’s view was that while many variables affect agriculture, the exchange rate plays a role in all aspects of agriculture. CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 4. 1 Introduction This chapter seeks to highlight the method used to carry out an empirical research on the effect of monetary policy on agricultural output in Nigeria, and also the specification of the model, description of variables, method of data presentation and analysis, and sources of data and limitations of the method. 4. 1 Model Specification The main focus of this study to determine the extent to which monetary policy have influenced agricultural output in Nigeria. From our Analytical Framework and Literature review a model is hereby specified in a functional form as follows: AGRUT = f (REER, MPR, ACGSF, FPI) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (1) Where: AGRUT – Agriculture output; REER – Real Exchange Rate; MPR – Monetary Policy Rate; ACGSF -Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme Fund; FPI – Foreign Private Investment. In an explicit form, it is specified as: AGRUT = ? 0 + ? 1REER + ? 2MPR+ ? 3ACGSF+ ? 4FPI + Ut †¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (2) Where: ut is the error term that is assumed to be normally distributed with the mean of zero and constant variance; ? 0 = Constant term/intercept; ? 1; ? 2; ? 3; ? 4= Slope coefficient. 4. Description of Variables and A priori Expectation The Agricultural Output (AGRUT) variable captures the output of major agricultural commodities in terms of crops such as melon, groun dnut, benniseed, coconuts, sheabutter, soyabeans, cottonseed, palm kernel, palm oil, groundnut oil, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, palmwine, tobacco and cocoa which contributes nearly sixty per cent of the total income generated from agricultural production in Nigeria. The AGRUT is used as the variable depending on other monetary policy variables to give a clearer empirical analysis of the topic under research. The data used to represent this variable is an annual time series secondary data from the period 1980 to 2006 obtained from the Central Bank of Nigeria; Statistical Bulletin (2006), volume 17. The Real Exchange Rate (REER) variable measures of between two currencies specifies how much one currency is worth in terms of the other this is the nominal exchange rate adjusted for inflation, it is the value of a foreign nation’s currency in terms of the home nation’s currency. The balance of payments can be in deficit or in surplus and each of these affect the monetary base, and hence the money supply in one direction or the other. By selling or buying foreign exchange, the Central Bank ensures that the exchange rate is at levels that do not affect domestic money supply in undesired direction, through the balance of payments and the real exchange rate. The real exchange rate when misaligned affects the current account balance because of its impact on external competitiveness. An increase in exchange rate (i. e. depreciation in the value of the naira) leads to an increase in agricultural output. Therefore the a priori expectation states that there is a positive relat ionship between AGRUT and REER. A priori expectation states that there is a positive relationship between FPI and AGRUT. The data used to represent this variable is an annual time series secondary data from the period 1980 to 2006 obtained from the Central Bank of Nigeria; Statistical Bulletin (2006), volume 17. The monetary policy rate (MPR) variable represents the minimum rate at which the Central Bank is willing to grant credit to a bank that has need for cash. It was formerly called the minimum rediscount rate (MRR). The Central Bank lends to financially sound Deposit Money Banks at a most favorable rate of interest, called the minimum rediscount rate (MRR). The MRR sets the floor for the interest rate regime in the money market (the nominal anchor rate) and thereby affects the supply of credit, the supply of savings (which affects the supply of reserves and monetary aggregate) and the supply of investment (which affects full employment and GDP). An increase in interest rates leads to a fall in agricultural output as capital for agribusinesses are limited or not available for investors and agribusiness owners to expand or even start up. There is a negative or inverse relationship between interest rates and agricultural output this makes our a priori expectation to be negative. The data used to represent this variable is an annual time series secondary data from the period 1980 to 2006 obtained from the Central Bank of Nigeria; Statistical Bulletin (2006), volume 17. The Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme Fund (ACGSF) variable represents the total amount of credit made available to different states in the country. The scheme is established by the Central Bank Of Nigeria to take care of credit availability for agribusinesses and to improve agricultural output in the country. A priori expectation for this variable is a positive relationship between ACGSF and AGRUT. The data used to represent this variable is an annual time series secondary data from the period 1980 to 2006 obtained from the Central Bank of Nigeria; Statistical Bulletin (2006), volume 17. The Foreign Private Investment (FPI) variable captures the foreign capital inflow into the agricultural sector for the period under review, this helps to know the value of agriculture in Nigeria in terms of its attractiveness to foreign investors, this variable determines the agricultural output in the economy to a large extent and it is closely linked to monetary policy variables affects the flow of capital in the economy also, the value of foreign private investment in agriculture is a function of the value of the Nigerian currency and prices, if the currency appreciates FPI in agriculture will be low because prices of goods in Nigeria will be relatively higher making the country less competitive. If there is inflation due to high supply of money FPI will be low as a result of lack of confidence of foreign investors in the economy. Therefore the level of FPI in our study is a monetary policy variable because it shows the level of price stability due changes in the supply of money and the value of the currency. A priori expectation states that there is a positive relationship between FPI and AGRUT. The data used to represent this variable is an annual time series secondary data from the period 1980 to 2006 obtained from the Central Bank of Nigeria; Statistical Bulletin (2006), volume 17. The variables used for our descriptive statistical analysis are explained as follows: The Prime Lending Rate (PLR) variable represents the interest rate used by banks. The term originally indicated the rate of interest at which banks lends to favored customers that is those with high credibility. The effect of a reduced or increased MPR ought to lead to reduced lending rate. Therefore a priori expectation states that as PLR (prime lending rate) increases AGRUT (agricultural output) will reduce. The data used to represent this variable is an annual time series secondary data from the period 1982 to 2006, obtained from the United Nations Statistical Database. The Cash Reserve Requirement (CRR) variable specifies the minimum reserve each bank must hold with the CBN in relation to their customers’ deposits. By reducing CRR the CBN is allowing the banks to keep more funds, which they can grant as credit to their customers. Therefore a priori expectation states that as CRR (cash reserve requirement) increases AGRUT (agricultural output) will also increase. The data used to represent this variable is an annual time series secondary data from the period 1982 to 2006, obtained from the Central Bank of Nigeria; Statistical Bulletin (2006), volume 17. Money Supply (M2) is broad money. It measures the total volume of money supply in the economy and is defined as narrow money plus savings and time deposits with banks including foreign denominated deposits. There is excess money supply when the amount of money in circulation is higher than the level of total output of the economy. When money supply exceeds the level the economy can efficiently absorb, it dislodges the stability of the price system, leading to inflation or higher prices of goods. Therefore a priori expectation states that as M2(money supply) increases AGRUT (agricultural output) will reduce because there will be inflation and less demand for agricultural commodities both at home and abroad because prices will rise and the value of the currency will appreciate leading to low foreign private investment and capital inflows and therefore, low agricultural output. The data used to represent this variable is an annual time series secondary data from the period 1982 to 2006 obtained from the Central Bank of Nigeria; Statistical Bulletin (2006), volume 17. 4. 3 Method of Data Analysis and Presentation. A Descriptive Statistical Analysis method making use of averages, growth rates and graphs was employed to capture the effect of some selected monetary policy instruments due to their importance in facilitating the provision of credit to farmers and agricultural businesses. The average with five years interval from the year 1982-2006, represented as follows, 1982-1986; 1987-1991; 1992-1996; 1997-2001; 2002-2006 respectively. The focus will be on the analysis of levels and trends in key variables of interest to provide insight into their pattern of movement over time. A unit root test preceeds our empirical analysis using Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) , If a time series is nonstationary, we can study its behavior for only the time period under consideration, each set of time series data will therefore be for a particular episode. We test for unit root because the nonstationarity of a time series data makes it impossible to generalize it to other time periods therefore for the purpose of forecasting, such nonstationary time series may be of little practical value. The Johansen cointegration analysis is used to test for cointegration. According to Asfaha and Jooste (2007), Fedderke (2001) opined that the Johansen technique for cointegration test is more popular than other techniques for cointegration testing, such as the Engle and Granger and autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) techniques. One of the reasons for its popularity is that it allows one to determine the number of cointegrating relationships present in the data. Therefore, in this study, the Johansen approach was used to estimate the cointegrating relationships between the dependent variables and the explanatory variables. In evaluation, the maximal eigenvalue and trace statistics were generated to determine the number of cointegration vectors (r) present in the data. The trace statistic is a joint test where the null is that the number of cointegrating vectors is less than or equal to r against an unspecified or general alternative that there are more than r. The maximum eigen statistic conducts a separate test on each eigenvalue and has as its null hypothesis that the number of cointegrating vectors is r against an alternative of r+1. Asfaha and Jooste (2007), Fedderke (2001) opined that Monte Carlo studies suggests trace statistic to be more robust to both skewness and excess kurtosis in residuals than the maximal Eigen value test, but the maximum Eigen value test will be used to identify the number of cointegrating equations in our cointegration test using the Johansen vector autoregressive model, this is due to the fact that the trace test is liable to deviate from normality. This implies that the maximum Eigen value test is more likely to give a normal result regarding the number of cointegrating equations in the model that would converge towards the long run equilibrium path. A vector error correction estimate is closely followed by the cointegration test. Vector Error Correction Method (VECM) is applied to make sure all errors generated within the model arising from the dynamics of the model under the cointegration test at each interval are corrected in subsequent intervals. This method was first used by Sargan (1964), designed to account for errors. Due to the event of a unique cointegrating vector or equation, a VECM is appropriate to simultaneously depict the long and short run evolution of the system and correct for disequilibrium in the cointegrating relationship. If the variables are stationary then the VAR can be estimated, in which case any shock to the stationary variables will be temporary. If the variables are nonstationary and not cointegrated, then they have to be transformed into stationary variables by differencing, before the VAR can be estimated. A Cointegrated non-stationary variable(s) require the inclusion of a vector of cointegrating residuals (adjustment matrix) in the VAR with differenced variables. This is known as a vector error correction model (VECM) (Robinson 1998). Specifying this model in a Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) form we have: ?wt = ? wt-k + ? 1? wt-1 + ? 2? wt-2 + ? 3? wt-3 + ? 4? wt-4+ ? 5? wt-5 +ut †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(3) Where wt = [AGRUTt ,EXRt, INTRt, ACGSFt, FPIt] is a (5x 1) vector containing the three I(1) variables and one I(0), ? i = (j=1k? j)-Ig , and ? =(i=1k? i)-Ig. Where k = 2 which is the number of Lags ;? s matrix of the long-run parameters, ? i are vectors of the short run parameters, and ut is the white noise stochastic term. This VAR contains g-variables in 1st difference term on the LHS, and k-1 lags of the dependent variables (differences) on the RHS, each with a ? coefficient matrix attached to it. The test for cointegration between the ws is calculated by looking at the rank of the ? matrix via its eigenvalues. ? = `, where matrix ? represents the speed of adjustment to disequilibrium and ? is a matrix which represents up to (n-1) cointegrating relationships between the non-stationary variables. The study will also be verified using he relevant appropriate test instruments such as the sign expectation which refers to what theory says about a particular economic relation. It is usually captured by the sign (whether positive or negative) and size of the parameter estimate. Parameters in the model are expected to have sign and sizes that conform to economic theory, if they do, they are accepted. On the order hand, if they do not conform to a priori specification we either reject them and we therefore have a reason to believe that the principles of economic theory do not hold. In estimating our VECM it is required that the sign will be negative showing that there is convergence of the variables to the same long run equilibrium path following every period of disequilibrium. The T- test will be used to determine the statistical significance of the parameter estimates. The t-statistic is used to check for the significance of the variable. In estimating our VECM, before any variable can be called significant, the rule of thumb expects that the absolute value of the t-statistic must not be less than two (2). CHAPTER FOUR ESTIMATION AND RESULTS 4. 1 Introduction This chapter examines the empirical data on monetary policy and its effect on agricultural output in Nigeria. We begin by doing a descriptive analysis on the impact of monetary policy instruments such as the agricultural credit guarantee scheme fund, prime lending rate, cash reserve requirement, and money supply, on agriculture. The Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) is used to test for unit root so as to avoid the generation of spurious regressions that arise from time series data analysis, followed by the Johansen cointegration test and vector error correction model (VECM) respectively. 4. 2 Descriptive Analysis of Monetary Policy Instruments and Agricultural output. Table 1: Average of AGRUT and Monetary Policy Instruments (1982-2006) YEAR| AGRUT| ACGSF| PLR| CRR| M2| 1982-1986| 8167. 6| 2518. 2| 9. 8| 5. 2| 21254. 9| 1987-1991| 10604. 6| 25596. 6| 19. 2| 2. 44| 54010. 6| 1992-1996| 11858. 4| 18369. 8| 23. 4| 5. 88| 256722| 1997-2001| 14537. 4| 60383. 4| 20| 9. 68| 801408| 2002-2006| 17644. 7| 34957| 20| 8. 3| 2429874| Source: computed by the researcher with data obtained from CBN statistical bulletin and the UN. From table 1 we see that the average value of agricultural output from the year 1982-1986 is the lowest , compared to the other averages, this period represents the pre-SAP and the SAP era, where the performance of the agricultural sector during this period was undermined mainly by disincentives created by the over valuation of the naira exchange rate and the sharp increases in foreign exchange earnings which resulted from rising oil revenues and consequently aided large food imports, an increased inflow of petro-naira which encouraged increased wages in the public sector also drained labour from the rural areas, thereby depriving the agricultural sector of the much needed manpower for its labour intensive activities. The average value of the period of 1987 to 1991 which represents the SAP period is shows an increasing value of AGRUT, caused by government policies through the structural adjustment programme to aid production in the agricultural sector. As a reflection of the increase in agricultural output and the trade liberalization policy of SAP, the value of agricultural exports rose on the average by 52. 0 per cent while its share in total exports stood at 3. 1 per cent. The profitability of some agricultural enterprises increased considerably resulting in expansion in their scale of operation. The period between 1992-1996; and 1997-2001, represents the SAP period as well as the post-SAP period where government became more aware of the agricultural sector, the growth in the output of agricultural products during this period was slower, as aggregate output rose on the average by 3. 6 per cent. In year 2001, a new Nigerian agricultural policy was launched. The successful implementation of the agricultural policy rests upon the existence of appropriate macroeconomic policies that provide the enabling environment for agriculture to grow in equilibrium with other sectors. The growth also exceeded the target of 6. 0 per cent for the agricultural sector under the NEEDS programme. In the period between 2002-2006 the CBN launched the National Micro Finance Policy in 2006. The main objectives of the policy are to make financial services accessible to a large segment of the potentially productive Nigerian population including rural farmers this also helped to boost and increase AGRUT as shown in table 1. The average of the agricultural credit guarantee scheme fund shows a 2518. 2 value in the period 1982-1986, the average value of the period 1987-1991 increased by a value of 23078. 4, also, in the period of 1992-1996, there was a decrease in ACGSF by an average value of 7226. 8 and the period of 1997-2001 the average value of ACGSF increased by a value of 42013. , the period of 2002-2006, the average value of the ACGSF reduced again by a whooping sum of 25426. 4 . The trend here shows a high level of fluctuation in the provision of credit by the ACGSF due to macroeconomic instability inherent in the economy as a whole. Table 2: % Growth rate of the average values of AGRUT and Monetary Policy Instruments (1987-2006) YEAR| GRAGRUT| GRACGSF| GRPLR| GRCRR| GRM2| 1987-1991| 22. 98| 90. 16| 48. 95| -113| 60. 64| 1992-1996| 10. 57| -39. 34| 17. 94| 58. 5| 78. 96| 1997-2001| 18. 43| 69. 53| -17| 39. 3| 67. 97| 2002-2006| 17. 61| -72. 73| 0| -16. 6| 67| Source: computed by the researcher with data obtained from CBN statistical bulletin and the UN. Table 2 shows the growth rate of the average values of agricultural output, the agricultural credit guarantee scheme fund, prime lending rate, cash reserve requirement, and money supply, from the period of 1987-1991; 1992-1996; 1997-2001; and 2002-2006 respectively, with a five year interval at each period. The table above shows that as the growth rate of the ACGSF value of the periods 1987-1991 and 2002-2006 respectively decreases, the growth rate of the agricultural output also falls and as it increases in periods1992-1996; and 1997-2001; respectively, the growth rate of the agricultural output in this period also rises. This will be further explained in graph 1 below. The table 2 also shows that as the growth rate of the prime lending rate in the period 1997-2001is negative, the growth rate of the AGRUT (agricultural output) in this period increases by a greater value. This will be further explained in graph 2 below. The relationship between the growth rate of the average values of the dependent variable AGRUT (agricultural output) and a monetary policy instrument CRR (cash reserve requirement) shows that as the cash reserve requirement growth rate yields a negative value, agricultural output increases in the period 1987-1991, in the period 1992-1996, CRR increases and AGRUT falls, in the period 1997-2001, CRR falls but AGRUT increases. This analysis tallies with a priori expectation because there is an inverse relationship between the two variables. The table also shows the relationship between the growth rate of the average values of the dependent variable AGRUT (agricultural output) and a monetary policy instrument M2(money supply), as money supply falls which is shown in periods1992-1996 agricultural output increases and when money supply decreases, the agricultural output falls. This analysis is consistent with a priori expectation because there is an inverse relationship between the two variables. Table 3: % Growth rate of the average values of AGRUT and ACGSF (1987-2006) YEAR| 1987-1991| 1992-1996| 1997-2001| 2002-2006| GRACGSF| 90. 16| -39. 34| 69. 53| -72. 73| GRAGRUT| 22. 98| 10. 57| 18. 43| 17. 61| Source: computed by the researcher with data obtained from CBN statistical bulletin and the UN. Graph 1: Relationship between the Growth rate of AGRUT and ACGSF (1987-2006) Graph 1 show the relationship between the growth rate of the average values of the dependent variable AGRUT (agricultural output) and a monetary policy instrument ACGSF (agricultural credit guarantee scheme fund) obtained in table 3. The graph shows that as the agricultural credit guarantee scheme fund growth rate yields a negative value, agricultural output falls in the period 1992-1996, while in the period 1997-2001, ACGSF increases and AGRUT increases although not at the same proportion and in the period between 2002-2006 when ACGSF falls by a higher proportion AGRUT also decreases slightly. This analysis is consistent with a priori expectation because there is a positive relationship between the two variables. Table 4:% Growth rate of the average values of AGRUT and PLR (1987-2006) YEAR| 1987-1991| 1992-1996| 1997-2001| 2002-2006| GRPLR| 48. 95| 17. 94| -17| 0| GRAGRUT| 22. 98| 10. 57| 18. 43| 17. 61| Source: computed by the researcher with data obtained from CBN statistical bulletin and the UN. Graph 2: Relationship between the Growth rate of AGRUT and PLR (1987-2006) Graph 2 shows the relationship between the growth rate of the average values of the dependent variable AGRUT (agricultural output) and a monetary policy instrument prime lending rate (PLR) for the period between 1987-2006 obtained in table 4. The graph shows that in the period 1997-2001 as the prime lending rate fall AGRUT increases. This analysis is consistent with a priori expectation because there is an inverse relationship between the two variables. 4. 3 Empirical Analysis of The Effect of selected Monetary Policy variables on Agricultural Output In this section, we analyze and discuss the results obtained from the data analysis. Our empirical analysis is based on the use of econometric methods. A unit root test using ADF using E-views 3 software for computation. A descriptive statistical analysis using averages, growth rates of averages and graphs to depict the effect of selected monetary policy instruments such as changes in money supply, cash reserve requirement, and prime lending rate on agricultural output and discovered that changes in these instruments find their way into the agricultural sector by affecting output overtime. Furthermore, the Johansen vector autoregressive model was also used to test for cointegration and a long-run relationship between the monetary policy variables. And the vector error correction method was used to find out the long-run equilibrium relationship of our model. 5. 2 Findings In our descriptive analysis we discovered that as the agricultural credit guarantee scheme influences agricultural output positively, this is due to the fact that an increase in the number of credits guaranteed, will lead to an increase in agricultural output over time, the prime lending rate affects agricultural output negatively because the higher the lending rate, the lower the numbers of credits issued in the long-run. The cash reserve ratio is also analyzed and we discovered that a high cash reserve ratio, will reduce the availability of credit, also as money supply increases, agricultural output will fall in the long-run due to inflation and a low demand for commodities. In our empirical analysis using econometrics, the result of a long-run relationship between the monetary variables in the model and agricultural output generated from our cointegration test allowed us to go further with an error correction using Vector Error Correction Model to correct errors in successive periods generated within the current period. The results showed that about 56% of errors generated within this period in the model are corrected in subsequent period this shows that there is a long-run equilibrium relationship between the agricultural credit guarantee scheme fund, foreign private investment in agriculture and agricultural output in Nigeria which implies that there is convergence of the variables to the same long run equilibrium path following every period of disequilibrium. Foreign Private Investment in Agriculture comes into the model because of it high sensitivity to changes in monetary policy variables such as money supply which affects the value of the currency and the general price level in the economy which are indicators potential investors look at when investing in Nigeria, this variable is also important because increase in agricultural output also depends on it. Comparing our findings we see that both methods (descriptive and econometric) provides uniform answers, our descriptive analysis concludes that monetary policy instruments cause specific changes in agricultural output overtime and our empirical analysis with the Johansen cointegration analysis and vector error correction model respectively shows there is a long-run equilibrium relationship between the monetary policy variables (ACGSF, and foreign private investment) and agricultural output. 5. 3 Conclusions This study has investigated the effect of monetary policy on the agricultural o utput in Nigeria. Literature was reviewed a descriptive statistical analysis was used to identify and document the relationship between agricultural output and some selected monetary policy instruments and the Johansen multivariate cointegration method was used followed by the vector error correction model. From the study, using the descriptive statistical analysis, we find that changes in monetary policy instruments cause changes agricultural output and from our empirical analysis using econometric methods there is a long-run equilibrium relationship between the monetary policy variables (ACGSF, and foreign private investment) and agricultural output. 5. 4. 1 Limitations of Studies Poor quality of data is a major constraint on agricultural practices in the rural areas, and also inadequate documentation and data on the agricultural policies implemented and monetary instruments used by the Nigerian government in previous years. Inadequate reliable data renders econometric analysis difficult. It is hoped that this problem will be ameliorated with the computerization of the financial system and the introduction of a transparent fiscal regime and corruption-free governance. 5. 4. 2 Suggestions for Further Studies This study has surveyed some literature on the effect of monetary policy on the growth of agricultural output in Nigeria. We also found out that monetary policy, if effectively used through financial intermediaries and financial development in the economy can lead to the growth of agricultural output. This study still recommends that a broader and more extensive study or investigation is require and pertinent as growth and development in these sectors will bring about improvement in the standard of living and lead to economic growth in the long run, and instead of a monocultural economy, a good study an research will bring about awareness for increased development of other sectors apart from the oil sector of which overdependence of the economy on income generated from production and export of crude oil has made the financial crisis suffered by trading partners of the country Nigeria to be greatly felt in the economy In terms of reduced availability of foreign exchange. Therefore, a research is needed, one that covers both the agricultural sector in terms of other products apart from crops which this project is limited to and also all non-oil goods produced and exported in the country and how monetary policy channels, that is, both the direct and the indirect instruments will caus e changes in these areas to weed out the inefficient ones so that concentration can be planned on the efficient ones.